Verbal Learning And Memory Test Research Articles

Cognitive reserve in figural and verbal memory in healthy older adults – preliminary results

AbstractBackgroundCognitive reserve plays an important role in individual trajectories of age‐related memory decline, with education and semantic fluency representing cognitive reserve proxies (CRPs). Higher CR may attenuate well‐known effects of ageing on the brain, such as decreases in grey matter volume (GMV). We hypothesised that the known associations between age‐related GMV and cognition would be (differentially) attenuated by CRPs.MethodWe analysed 3‐Tesla T1‐weighted Multi‐Echo MPRAGE and cognitive data (Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT), Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT), and Regensburg Verbal Fluency Test (RWT)) from 51 cognitively normal adults (73.2±7.62 years, 31 male) in our new cohort established within the CRC1436 (https://sfb1436.de/). MRI data were pre‐processed and analysed using CAT12. We performed a whole‐brain linear regression to first assess age‐related reductions in GMV (covariates: sex, total intracranial volume (TIV), education), extracting mean betas for significant regions of interest (ROIs). We investigated the relationship between GMV in age‐vulnerable regions and memory using linear regressions in R (covariates: age, sex, TIV), and assessed CRPs as moderators on this relationship. Finally, we tested whether CRPs explained variance in memory performance over and above that of GMV and age. We accounted for multiple testing via Benjamini‐Hochberg‐correction.ResultWhole brain analyses identified bilateral hippocampal GMV as negatively associated with age (Fig.1). Linear regression analyses yielded a significant positive association between bilateral hippocampal GMV and figural memory (Fig.2). However, we observed no significant moderation by CRPs on this relationship. Finally, we observed weak evidence for cognitive reserve when adjusting for GMV and age, with higher variance explained by CRPs (Table 1). Semantic fluency positively predicted a figural memory composite when adjusting for right (p = 0.006) as well as left hippocampal GMV (p = 0.014). Education positively predicted verbal memory when adjusting for right (p<0.001) as well as left hippocampal GMV (p<0.001).ConclusionConsistent with operational definitions, our results provide weak evidence for semantic fluency and for education as CRPs in figural and verbal memory, respectively. However, our findings are preliminary, given the future addition of more participants. Nevertheless, these results provide important first insights into cognitive reserve in this developing cohort.

The ERP correlate of episodic recollection is a neurocognitive determinant of subjective memory complaints: Implications on their predictive validity.

Objective: Subjective memory complaints (SMCs) seem to be a promising marker of cognitive decline and progressing dementia in healthy older adults. However, SMCs have not been invariably related to memory performance, probably because objective tests do not always target the specific neurocognitive processes that underlie SMCs. This study disentangles the neurocognitive basis of memory-specific SMCs by investigating their dependence on episodic recollection which relies on the hippocampal relational memory system as well as their predictive value for memory tests that target such processes. Method: In 29 healthy participants, aged 52-70 years, we assessed SMCs, using the Memory Assessment Clinics Self-Rating Scale (MAC-S), episodic recollection and associated event-related potentials (ERPs), the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT), which assesses hippocampal functions, as well as depressive symptomology, using Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI). We used correlational and regression models to estimate the association of SMCs with recollection and VLMT performance, independent of age, depressive symptomology, and the P300, an ERP correlate of attentional processes. Results: The ERP correlate of source-recollection significantly accounted for 9% unique variance in SMCs. Moreover, SMCs explained unique proportions of variance in several VLMT measures (ΔR 2 ranging from .07 to .17). Conclusions: SMCs are partially determined by malfunctioning of the hippocampal relational memory system. In line with this, SMCs predict performance in objective memory tests if they also target hippocampally dependent processes. The study emphasizes the prognostic relevance of SMCs as episodic memory decline is an important preclinical marker for the development of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Lack of association between proton pump inhibitor use and brain aging: a cross-sectional study

PurposeDue to conflicting scientific evidence for an increased risk of dementia by intake of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), this study investigates associations between PPI use and brain volumes, estimated brain age, and cognitive function in the general population.MethodsTwo surveys of the population-based Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP) conducted in Northeast Germany were used. In total, 2653 participants underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and were included in the primary analysis. They were divided into two groups according to their PPI intake and compared with regard to their brain volumes (gray matter, white matter, total brain, and hippocampus) and estimated brain age. Multiple regression was used to adjust for confounding factors. Cognitive function was evaluated by the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT) and the Nuremberg Age Inventory (NAI) and put in relation to PPI use.ResultsNo association was found between PPI use and brain volumes or the estimated brain age. The VLMT score was 1.11 lower (95% confidence interval: − 2.06 to − 0.16) in immediate recall, and 0.72 lower (95% CI: − 1.22 to − 0.22) in delayed recall in PPI users than in non-users. PPI use was unrelated to the NAI score.ConclusionsThe present study does not support a relationship between PPI use and brain aging.

Functional polymorphisms of the mineralocorticoid receptor gene NR3C2 are associated with diminished memory decline: Results from a longitudinal general-population study.

BackgroundThe mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in the brain has a key role in the regulation of the central stress response and is associated with memory performance. We investigated whether the genetic polymorphisms rs5522 and rs2070951 of NR3C2 showed main and interactive effects with childhood trauma on memory decline.MethodsDeclarative memory was longitudinally assessed in 1,318 participants from the community‐dwelling Study of Health in Pomerania using the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT). In a subsample of 377 participants aged 60 and older, the Mini‐Mental Status Examination (MMSE) was additionally applied. Mean follow‐up time for the VLMT and MMSE were 6.4 and 10.7 years, respectively.ResultsHomozygous carriers of the G allele of rs2070951 (p < .01) and of the A allele of rs5522 (p < .001) showed higher immediate recall of words as compared to carriers of C allele (rs2070951) or the G allele (rs5522). The CG haplotype was associated with decreased recall (p < .001). Likewise, in the subsample of older patients, the AA genotype of rs5522 was associated with higher MMSE scores (p < .05). CG haplotypes showed significantly reduced MMSE scores in comparison to the reference haplotype (β = −0.60; p < .01).ConclusionsOur results indicate that the GG genotype of rs2070951 as well as the AA genotype of rs5522 are associated with diminished memory decline.

Inflammatory markers and imaging patterns of advanced brain aging in the general population.

Inflammaging describes the complexity between low-grade chronic inflammation with the pathogenesis of brain aging and Alzheimer´s disease (AD). We aimed to find associations of inflammatory markers: i) white blood cell count (WBC), ii) high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and iii) fibrinogen with brain structures, sensitive neuroimaging markers of advanced brain aging and AD-like atrophy, and cognitive aging scores. We analyzed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of 2204 participants from the Study of Health in Pomerania-2 (SHIP-2) and SHIP-Trend (55.6% women, mean age 52.4±13.7 years). Associations of the inflammatory markers with specific brain signatures of brain aging (SPARE-BA), AD-like brain atrophy (SPARE-AD) and white matter disease (white matter hyperintensities volume (WMHV)) were investigated. Furthermore we explored their association with general brain structures including total brain volume (TBV), gray matter volume (GMV), and white matter volume (WMV), as well as cognitive scores (Nurnberger Age Inventory (NAI); Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT). We adjusted for multiple vascular risk factors (VRF; e.g. smoking and blood pressure) and corresponding medication use to take their brain aging effects into account and corrected for false-discovery rate (FDR). Results:WBC was inversely associated with SPARE-BA (FDR-adjusted p=0.003), TBV (FDR-adjusted p=0.019) and GMV (FDR-adjusted p= 0.017). GMV was also inversely associated with hs-CRP (FDR-adjusted p=0.039) and fibrinogen (FDR-adjusted p=0.039). None of the inflammatory markers was associated with WMHV. Regression analysis also revealed a trend-level interaction between intake of antiinflammatory medication and hs-CRP with brain aging (SPARE-BA; FDR-adjusted p=0.062). Inflammatatory markers are associated with neuroimaging markers, with elevated WBC leading to significant acceleration in brain aging patterns but not with AD-like imaging structural changes. Given the overlap between accelerated brain aging and AD-like atrophy, increased WBC might be associated with global dementia symptoms due to this overlap in atrophy patterns. Elevated WBC may be not causal to preclinical AD dementia, but an accessory symptom of inflammaging. At population level, our results support the relevant roles of inflammatory markers on brain aging related atrophy.

Short-term interval aerobic exercise training does not improve memory functioning in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis-a randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundOnly few aerobic exercise intervention trials specifically targeting cognitive functioning have been performed in multiple sclerosis.Objective and MethodsThis randomized controlled trial with 34 patients in the intervention group (IG) (mean: 38.2 years (±9.6)) and 34 patients in the control group (CG) (mean: 39.6 years (±9.7)) aimed to determine the effects of aerobic exercise on cognition in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). The primary outcome was verbal learning assessed by the verbal learning and memory test (VLMT). Patients were randomized to an IG or a waitlist CG. Patients in the IG exercised according to an individually tailored training schedule (with two to three sessions per week for 12 weeks). The primary analysis was carried out using the intention-to-treat (ITT) sample with ANCOVA adjusting for baseline scores.ResultsA total of 77 patients with RRMS were screened and 68 participants randomized (CG n = 34; IG n = 34). The sample comprised 68% females, had a mean age of 39 years, a mean disease duration of 6.3 years, and a mean expanded disability status scale of 1.8. No significant effects were detected in the ITT analysis for the primary endpoint VLMT or any other cognitive measures. Moreover, no significant treatment effects were observed for quality of life, fatigue, or depressive symptoms.ConclusionThis study failed to demonstrate beneficial effects of aerobic exercise on cognition in RRMS. The trial was prospectively registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02005237).

Sex differences across age in cognitive tests in the Rhineland study

Introduction Neurodegeneration and memory decline are of growing concern due to population aging. It is well known that both age and educational history impact cognitive function. Furthermore, a growing body of evidence suggests that biological sex may also play a role. Various studies have reported that women tend to outperform men in episodic memory tasks, whereas men tend to outperform women in numerical working memory tasks. However, sex differences are less clear for tests that measure executive function or processing speed, with previous work reporting either no sex differences or a marginally better performance of men. Spatial working memory and premorbid IQ seem not to be influenced by sex. Only limited and inconclusive data exist as to whether the associations of sex and cognition change with aging. We aimed to examine the effects of sex over a wide adult age range and across different cognitive domains in a population-based cohort. Methods The study is based on cross-sectional data from the first 1306 participants of the Rhineland Study. The Rhineland Study is a population-based cohort study that includes participants from the age of 30, living in and around the city of Bonn. We excluded participants > 90 years of age (n = 4) which left n = 1302 to be included in the current analyses. In addition to advanced biological phenotyping, the study protocol includes a cognitive test battery. Episodic memory was assessed using the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT) immediate and delayed recall, working memory through the Corsi block-tapping test (forward and backward) and the digit span test (forward and backward), processing speed and executive function through the trail-making test A and B (TMT-A, TMT-B), and crystallized intelligence (as a measure of premorbid IQ) through a multiple choice vocabulary test (MWT-B). We performed multi-factor analysis of variance on whether sex or age (in 10-year age groups: 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89) were associated with cognitive test performance (z-standardized), either independently or through interaction. All analyses were adjusted for educational attainment. We corrected for multiple testing using the Holm-Bonferroni method. Tukey's test was administered post-hoc to assess the direction of group differences. Results Mean age in our sample was 56 years (SD = 14 years) and 56% were women. Age group was significantly associated with performance for all tests. Compared to younger participants older participants performed better in crystalline intelligence, but worse on all other tests. Men performed significantly better than women on tests of executive function (TMT-B: Mdiff = −0.17; 95% CI: −0.26, −0.08) and working memory (Corsi: forward Mdiff = 0.28; 95% CI: 0.17, 0.38; backward Mdiff = 0.23; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.33; digit span: forward Mdiff = 0.20; 95%CI 0.10, 0.31; backward Mdiff = 0.16; 95%CI 0.05, 0.26). On the other hand, women performed significantly better than men on the episodic memory test (VLMT: immediate Mdiff = 0.45; 95% CI: 0.36, 0.54; delayed Mdiff = 0.42; 95% CI: 0.33, 0.52). We observed no interaction between age and sex across all tests, indicating no sex differences in how cognitive performance changes over the adult age range. Conclusion Our results confirm previously observed sex differences in episodic memory (women outperform) and working memory tasks (men outperform). We also found suggestive evidence for men outperforming women in measures of executive function. Notably, we found no evidence for any variations in these associations across the adult lifespan.

The effect of proton pump inhibitors on cognition and brain volume in the Rhineland study

Introduction Proton pump inhibitors (PPI) are one of the most widely used drug classes in the world. Several studies have found that users of PPIs had an increased risk of cognitive decline and dementia. This could however not be confirmed by others. Protopathic bias, in which early signs and symptoms of the disease influence drug exposure, could be a reason for these conflicting results. Given that alterations in brain volume can be seen years before the occurrence of cognitive symptoms, examining the association between PPI use and brain volume in non-demented persons would eliminate the potential of protopathic bias. Therefore, we aimed to assess the associations between PPI use and cognition and brain volume. Methods We performed a cross-sectional study based on the first 1306 participants in the Rhineland Study. The Rhineland Study is a population-based cohort study in Bonn Germany that includes people aged ≥ 30 years. Information on medication use is collected in an interview in which regularly and as needed used medication is registered. PPI use was classified as regular use of PPIs (ATC code A02BC). Participants who reported using PPIs as needed were excluded. We assessed the following cognitive domains: processing speed [Trail Making Test (TMT) A], executive functioning (TMT B - A), working memory (Digit Span Forward), and long-term memory [Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT); delayed loss]. Measures for TMT and VLMT were inverted so that higher values represent better test performance for all tests. All eligible participants were scanned on Siemens 3 Tesla Prisma MRI scanners. We assessed the effect of PPI use on total brain volume, cortical grey matter volume, and ventricle volume. Processing speed and ventricle volume were log transformed. All outcome measures were z-standardized. We examined the association between PPI use and cognition using multivariable linear regression models. Within the first model we only controlled for age (m1: age). Because PPI use strongly increased with increasing age, we included variables that were a determinant for PPI use after controlling for age in the fully adjusted model (m2: age, body mass index, diabetes, hypertension, antithrombotic use, statin use and NSAID use). We subsequently examined the association between PPI use and brain volume outcomes in the same way but with additional control for head size in all models. Results We included 1130 participants [mean age 55, standard deviation (SD) 13.5; 57% women; 81 PPI users] to determine the effect of PPI use on cognition. We excluded 176 participants, 25 for missing drug information, 89 for as needed PPI use and 62 for missing cognition data. We observed no effect on processing speed with a mean SD difference [95% confidence interval (95% CI)] for m1 of 0.00 (−0.19; 0.19) and for m2 of 0.02 (−0.18; 0.22). We observed a trend towards a negative effect of PPI use with a mean SD difference (95% CI) for executive functioning, working memory and long-term memory for m1 of −0.18 (−0.40; 0.03), −0.17 (−0.40; 0.05), and −0.29 (−0.51; −0.07) and for m2 of −0.13 (−0.35; 0.10), −0.12 (−0.36; 0.11), and −0.17 (−0.39; 0.06). Effect sizes were comparable to a 5-year increase in age for executive functioning and a 9-year increase in age for working memory and long-term memory. We had MRI data in a subset of 640 participants (mean age 54, SD 13.2; 56% women; 28 PPI users). Brain volume measures were smaller in PPI users compared to non-users, but these effects were far from significant, mean SD difference (95% CI) for total brain volume, cortical grey matter volume, and ventricle volume for m1 was −0.07 (−0.23; 0.09), −0.07 (−0.26; 0.12), and 0.02 (−0.27; 0.31), and for m2 was −0.05 (−0.21; 0.12), −0.03 (−0.23; 0.16) and −0.06 (−0.36; 0.24). Conclusions Given our small sample size and relatively young population, these results suggest a possible effect of PPI use on brain structure and function and warrant further investigation in larger samples.

Accelerated long-term forgetting in focal epilepsies with special consideration given to patients with diagnosed and suspected limbic encephalitis

RationaleAccelerated long-term forgetting (ALF) is a phenomenon found in late onset epilepsy and in transient epileptic amnesia (TEA). Here we evaluated ALF in patients with focal epilepsies and limbic encephalitis (LE) in particular. MethodsALF was assessed in 36 patients with focal epilepsy and 154 healthy subjects using an extended version of the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT), with free recall after 30 min and again after one week. From these patients, 89% had temporal lobe epilepsy; 42% left-lateralized; 39% right; 19% bilateral; 17% were diagnosed with hippocampal sclerosis; 64% displayed features indicating LE; 52% with amygdala pathology, and 61% were antibody positive. ALF was defined as either having unimpaired free recall after 30 min and impaired recall after a week (A) or as a loss in recall exceeding the absolute (B) and percentage loss (C) in the interval of the 30 min and one week recall seen in controls by more than one standard deviation. ResultsRepeated measures analysis revealed an association between LE and ALF. Depending on its definition (A, B, or C), ALF was evident in 31%, 42%, or 67% of the patients. Poor verbal memory and ALF (C) were prominent in left-lateralized epilepsies. ALF (A) appeared more frequently in auto-antibody negative patients with LE, ALF (B) less frequently with hippocampal sclerosis. Seizures during the interval did not explain ALF. ConclusionDepending on its definition, ALF is seen in patients with normal or impaired memory at ½ h. ALF seems related to LE but might as well be the first sign of memory impairment in patients with milder epilepsies and not yet definite structural temporal lobe pathology. Longitudinal assessment would be essential for discerning when ALF becomes evident, whether conditions exist in which ALF precedes short-term forgetting, and whether ALF responds to treatment.

Assessment of hearing aid algorithms using a master hearing aid: the influence of hearing aid experience on the relationship between speech recognition and cognitive capacity

Objectives: Model-based hearing aid development considers the assessment of speech recognition using a master hearing aid (MHA). It is known that aided speech recognition in noise is related to cognitive factors such as working memory capacity (WMC). This relationship might be mediated by hearing aid experience (HAE). The aim of this study was to examine the relationship of WMC and speech recognition with a MHA for listeners with different HAE. Design: Using the MHA, unaided and aided 80% speech recognition thresholds in noise were determined. Individual WMC capacity was assed using the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT) and the Reading Span Test (RST). Study sample: Forty-nine hearing aid users with mild to moderate sensorineural hearing loss divided into three groups differing in HAE. Results: Whereas unaided speech recognition did not show a significant relationship with WMC, a significant correlation could be observed between WMC and aided speech recognition. However, this only applied to listeners with HAE of up to approximately three years, and a consistent weakening of the correlation could be observed with more experience. Conclusions: Speech recognition scores obtained in acute experiments with an MHA are less influenced by individual cognitive capacity when experienced HA users are taken into account.

Low episodic memory performance in cognitively normal elderly subjects is associated with increased posterior cingulate gray matter N-acetylaspartate: a 1H MRSI study at 7 Tesla

Low episodic memory performance characterizes elderly subjects at increased risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and may reflect neuronal dysfunction within the posterior cingulate cortex and precuneus (PCP) region. To investigate a potential association between cerebral neurometabolism and low episodic memory in the absence of cognitive impairment, tissue-specific magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging at ultrahigh field strength of 7 Tesla was used to investigate the PCP region in a healthy elderly study population (n = 30, age 70 ± 5.7 years, Mini–Mental State Examination 29.4 ± 4.1). The Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT) was administered as part of a neuropsychological battery for assessment of episodic memory performance. Significant differences between PCP gray and white matter could be observed for glutamate-glutamine (p = 0.001), choline (p = 0.01), and myo-inositol (p = 0.02). Low Verbal Learning and Memory Test performance was associated with high N-acetylaspartate in PCP gray matter (p = 0.01) but not in PCP white matter. Our data suggest that subtle decreases in episodic memory performance in the elderly may be associated with increased levels of N-acetylaspartate as a reflection of increased mitochondrial energy capacity in PCP gray matter.

Neurocognitive function, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and IL-6 levels in cancer patients with depression

BackgroundIncreased IL-6 and decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels have been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. The objective was to assess the influence of BDNF and IL-6 on cognitive function and depression in patients with cancer. MethodsSerum BDNF and plasma IL-6 were measured in patients with metastatic cancer. Diagnosis of depression was established according to DSM-IV criteria. Cognitive function was assessed by the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT). ResultsA total of 59 patients were recruited in this study. Only IL-6 levels were significantly elevated in patients with clinical depression (35.7 vs. 6.9pg/ml; p<0.001). There were no differences in hemoglobin levels (p=0.3) or BDNF levels (p=0.16). Patients with clinical depression showed significant impairment of short-term memory (STM) (24.4 vs. 37.5; p=0.01), but not of long-term memory (LTM) (3.9 vs. 2.8; p=0.3). STM was dependent on the level of BDNF and younger age (b=0.60; p=0.001; b= −0.63; p=0.003, respectively). IL-6 was not only strongly associated with depression, but was an independent predictor of BDNF level as well (b= −0.50; p=0.01). LTM was associated only with a good KPS (b=0.47; p=0.037). Hemoglobin levels and the prior number of chemotherapy lines were not predictive of memory performance. ConclusionsLow BDNF is associated with cognitive impairment, STM, in patients with cancer, however no influence on depression could be found. IL-6 is strongly associated with depression and an independent predictor of BDNF levels.

Genetic variation of the RASGRF1 regulatory region affects human hippocampus-dependent memory

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor RASGRF1 is an important regulator of intracellular signaling and neural plasticity in the brain. RASGRF1-deficient mice exhibit a complex phenotype with learning deficits and ocular abnormalities. Also in humans, a genome-wide association study has identified the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs8027411 in the putative transcription regulatory region of RASGRF1 as a risk variant of myopia. Here we aimed to assess whether, in line with the RASGRF1 knockout mouse phenotype, rs8027411 might also be associated with human memory function. We performed computer-based neuropsychological learning experiments in two independent cohorts of young, healthy participants. Tests included the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT) and the logical memory section of the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS). Two sub-cohorts additionally participated in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of hippocampus function. 119 participants performed a novelty encoding task that had previously been shown to engage the hippocampus, and 63 subjects participated in a reward-related memory encoding study. RASGRF1 rs8027411 genotype was indeed associated with memory performance in an allele dosage-dependent manner, with carriers of the T allele (i.e., the myopia risk allele) showing better memory performance in the early encoding phase of the VLMT and in the recall phase of the WMS logical memory section. In fMRI, T allele carriers exhibited increased hippocampal activation during presentation of novel images and during encoding of pictures associated with monetary reward. Taken together, our results provide evidence for a role of the RASGRF1 gene locus in hippocampus-dependent memory and, along with the previous association with myopia, point toward pleitropic effects of RASGRF1 genetic variations on complex neural function in humans.

The impact of a CACNA1C gene polymorphism on learning and hippocampal formation in healthy individuals: A diffusion tensor imaging study

BackgroundGenome-wide association studies have identified the CACNA1C single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1006737 as one of the most consistent genetic findings as susceptibility locus for major psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, animal and genetic imaging studies have reported strong functional evidence for the association of CACNA1C with learning, memory, neural plasticity, and its association with the hippocampal formation. In the present study we investigated the impact of the CACNA1C SNP rs1006737 on the fractional anisotropy (FA) in the hippocampal formation as well as on verbal learning and memory in healthy individuals. Methods118 healthy individuals (72 males, 46 females, age 18–56years) initially underwent diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), 100 of them were included in the final analysis. We used Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) to examine the impact of the CACNA1C SNP rs1006737 on the hippocampal formation as predefined region of interest (ROI). Furthermore, all participants completed the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT). ResultsIn the VLMT genotype was significantly associated with learning performance. Bonferroni corrected post-hoc tests indicated a diminished performance at the beginning of the learning curve in risk allele carriers compared to non-risk allele carriers. The TBSS ROI analysis revealed one cluster of reduced FA in risk allele carriers compared to non-risk allele carriers located in the right hippocampal formation. Moreover, an association between the initial learning performance and FA values was found. DiscussionThese findings demonstrate that genetic variation in the CACNA1C SNP rs1006737 is associated with FA reduction in the hippocampal formation as well as with differences in learning performance in healthy individuals.

Extended retention intervals can help to bridge the gap between subjective and objective memory impairment

PurposeDespite their excellent clinical validity, objective measures of memory often do not reflect self-perceived memory impairment. This discordance has mostly been attributed to depressed mood. Alternatively, a lack of ecological validity due to the rather short standard retention intervals of 20–60min may be responsible for this discordance. Therefore, we explored the value of extended retention intervals in regard to subjective memory deficits. MethodsOur prospective study was based on 73 patients with epilepsy. In addition to the standard 30-min retention interval of a verbal learning and memory test (VLMT) patients were randomized to either a free delayed recall after 1 week or after 4 weeks. Mood was assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). ResultsForty-four patients (60%) reported self-perceived memory deficits, whereas objective verbal memory impairment was present in 26 patients (36%). Concordance between subjective and objective memory performance was observed in 53% of the patients. Multivariate analyses identified memory performance after 4 weeks and self-rated mood as determinants of subjective memory impairment. Self-perceived memory impairment correlated with the number of remembered words after 4 weeks (r=−0.361, p=0.030) and the BDI total score (r=0.332, p=0.004) but neither with recall performance after 30min nor after 1 week. ConclusionSubjective memory appears to follow a different time scale than routine memory testing. Thus, the introduction of longer retention intervals may enhance the ecological validity of standard memory tests. Furthermore, the findings again underscore that controlling for mood is mandatory when dealing with subjective memory complaints.