Vein Pressure Research Articles

A global solution to a hyperbolic problem for blood flow modelling

The paper aims to examine the hyperbolic system of equations governing one-dimensional haemodynamics and its relevance in analysing blood flow under mechanical influences, with particular emphasis on the impact of altering the angle of the leg axis. Methods and approaches for solving hyperbolic equations have been developed in light of their properties and characteristics. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the interplay between vein pressure, pulse wave velocity, and vascular distension. The study revealed an inverse relationship between vein pressure and pulse wave velocity. A decrease in pulse wave velocity occurs when vein pressure rises, and vice versa. Both real measurements and modelling results confirmed this dependence. The pressure in the veins is between 10.8 and 13.6 kPa, and the speed of the pulse wave is between 0.061 and 0.27 kPa. The agreement between real and model data was high. The modelled venous pressure and pulse wave velocity values are close to the actual values. However, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of this paper. These limitations include the utilisation of one-dimensional haemodynamic models, which fail to consider the three-dimensional structure of the circulatory system. Additionally, the analysis is restricted to examining changes solely in the leg axis angle. The research helps to clarify the relationship between mechanical actions and haemodynamic parameters. The findings may help research and develop new methods for identifying and treating conditions associated with the cardiovascular system.

Decompression of Axillary Vein: An Essential Adjunct for Advanced Lymphedema.

In advanced lymphedema, lymphovenous anastomosis (LVA) can be a solution based on using the pressure gradient between the high-pressure lymphatics and the low-pressure veins. If the vein pressure is high, the effect of surgery will be less optimal. This study evaluated the effect of axillary vein perivascular scar release on LVA. This is a retrospective study of 40 upper limb stage 2 and 3 lymphedema patients divided into 2 groups with an average follow-up of 33 months (minimum of at least 12 months): the scar release group ( n = 25) and the control group ( n = 15). All patients underwent LVA with or without lymph node transfer. Demographic data, outcome (volumetric change and bioimpedence analysis [BIA]), and major vein (axillary, basilic, and cephalic) diameter changes were evaluated. Both groups showed significant reduction in volume and BIA parameters after LVA. The scar release group (24 of 25 with lymph node transfer and 1 without) showed statistically higher reduction of BIA analysis compared with the control group at 1, 6, and 12 months after LVA. The changes in the major veins after axilla scar release showed significant changes in all 3 veins. There was a significant correlation between cephalic vein diameter reduction and BIA measurement. The release of perivascular scar in the axillary vein may result in better outcome after LVA. This is based on the finding that scar release shows correlation between cephalic vein diameter reduction and BIA measurement suggesting reduction of venous pressure in the peripheral vein increasing the pressure gradient between the lymphatic and venous system allowing better outflow after LVA. Therapeutic, III.

Significance of elevation of foot in management of varicose veins and its sequelae

Varicose veins are a severe clinical manifestation of chronic venous insufficiency [1] , prolonged standing / sitting causes blood to pool in veins of Lower limbs, there by increases the pressure in veins, then veins stretch from Increased pressure, these may weaken the walls of veins and damage the valves. CVI associated with Impaired blood flow leads to tissue congestion oedema and eventually impairement of tissue nutrition. In advanced venous insufficiency Impaired tissue nutrition can causes statis dermatits and development of varicose ulcer. If varicose ulcer is not treated properly, then it gets Infected leads to cellulitis and gangrene, may require amputation of part of limb. The present article deals with brief introduction regarding aetiopathogenesis of varicose veins and its sequelae related symptoms. The aim of writing article is to express the significance of elevation of foot in varicose veins and its sequelae.

Effects of different routes of administration and doses of Sulodexide on leukocyte-endothelium interaction and tissue perfusion on an animal model of low flow and high pressure in veins.

To assess the effects of different doses and routes of Sulodexide on leukocyte-endothelium interaction and tissue perfusion in a model of venous hypertension and low blood flow. Six weeks after venous hypertension induction, through external iliac vein ligature male hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) received Sulodexide at 1, 2, or 4mg/kg/day or saline (placebo) by subcutaneous or intramuscular routes during 2 or 4weeks. After treatments, leukocyte rolling and adhesion, functional capillary density (FCD), and venular diameter were evaluated on the affected hindlimb. Subcutaneous and intramuscular treatments with Sulodexide after 2 and 4weeks, significantly reduced leukocyte rolling and adhesion and increased FCD. Sulodexide did not affect venular diameter and intramuscular treatment was more effective in reducing leukocyte adhesion than the subcutaneous one. This preliminary study demonstrated that Sulodexide significantly decreased leukocyte-endothelium interaction and improved tissue perfusion in hamsters subjected to venous hypertension and low blood flow.

Treatment of multiple huge liver cysts in a hybrid operating room: a case report

BackgroundLiver cysts are common, with most cases being asymptomatic. In symptomatic cases, the disease is amenable to treatment. However, huge or multiple liver cysts with vascular narrowing and associated systemic symptoms are extremely rare. Furthermore, the performance of a reliable and effective surgery in such cases remains a major problem. Here, we report a case of multiple giant liver cysts with impaired blood flow surgically treated in a hybrid operating room.Case presentationA 73-year-old male presented to a previous doctor with leg edema and dyspnea on exertion; computed tomography revealed that the cause complaint was right lung and heart compression and inferior vena cava (IVC) stenosis due to huge liver cysts in the caudal lobe. The patient was referred to our hospital because of disease recurrence despite percutaneous aspiration of the cyst. Multiple liver cysts were observed in addition to the drained cysts, two of which were located on both sides of the IVC and caused IVC stenosis. We performed open surgery for the liver cysts and used the hybrid operating room for intraoperative IVC angiography and measuring the hepatic vein and portal vein (PV) pressure. We performed unroofing of the hepatic cyst and cauterization of the cyst wall on the hepatic side. Angiography was performed before and after unroofing of the liver cysts, and IVC stenosis release was confirmed. IVC pressure measured at the peripheral side of the stenosis and PV pressures were continuously measured during surgery and were confirmed to have decreased during the opening of the liver cysts. The patient had a good postoperative course and was discharged on the 10th postoperative day. No recurrence was observed 6 months postoperatively.ConclusionsCyst unroofing surgery using angiography in a hybrid operating room is a useful treatment for deep hepatic lesions in that vascular stenosis improvement can be intraoperatively confirmed. Moreover, in cases wherein the cyst compresses the vasculature, intraoperative monitoring of IVC and PV pressures can be used to prove that the liver cyst is hemodynamically involved.

Posterior nut-cracker syndrome: Urologist’s perspective – A mini review

Posterior Nut Cracker Syndrome (PCNS) is a rare clinical condition that occurs when the left renal vein gets compressed between the abdominal aorta and vertebral body. Posterior nutcracker phenomenon is a common anatomical abnormality, which is totally asymptomatic and diagnosed in a routinely performed abdominal imaging. The pressure gradient that develops between the renal vein and the inferior vena cava is the basic reason for all the features associated with this condition. Left renal venous entrapment would result in stagnation of blood in gonadal vessels that results in cascading effect resulting in a venous congestion and increased resistance to arterial blood flow in the kidney. Patients with pelvic congestion syndrome present with left loin pain and unilateral left varicocele. Gastrointestinal symptoms and arterial hypertension may also be the presenting symptoms. The symptoms depend upon the degree of pressure in renal veins and gonadal veins. When the dilated veins communicate with renal calyx, haematuria occurs. PNCS is best managed based on the severity of symptoms and the extent of clinical manifestations. Treatment options include conservative treatment, intra-vascular stents, chemical cauterisation, open surgical intervention and finally if everything fails, nephrectomy. PCNS is a rare entity that affects mostly females and can present with a variety of signs and symptoms. A high index of clinical suspicion is needed to achieve a prompt diagnosis. Conservative treatment is recommended for patients with mild symptoms. Severely symptomatic patients might benefit from endovascular treatment.

Развитие хориоидальной эффузии на фоне применения ингибиторов карбоангидразы

Relevance. Choroidal effusion is a complication accompanying both surgical interventions and ophthalmopathies of predominantly inflammatory etiology. The release of proteins from choriocapillaries lumen and decrease of intraocular pressure relative to the pressure in the episcleral veins lead to the choroid detachment. Purpose. To analyze the causal link between choroidal effusion and topical application of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors using a clinical example. Material and methods. The paper describes a clinical case of the development of unilateral recurrent choroidal effusion 13 years after sinus trabeculectomy associated with the use of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. The first episode of choroidal effusion was induced by a fixed combination of brinzolamide with timolol, while the use of dorzolamide caused the repeated episode. The clinical picture was accompanied by significant decrease in visual acuity related to acute hypotension and severe folds of the descemet's membrane. Ultrasonic B-scanning revealed the choroid detachment. The dechallenge of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, the use of anti-inflammatory and cycloplegic drugs contributed to achieve the choroid adherence. Results. This clinical case clearly demonstrates a causal link between choroidal effusion and topical application of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. The timely drug therapy made it possible to avoid surgical intervention. Intraocular pressure increased later. Brimonidine was prescribed to reduce it, the intraocular pressure was normalized, and the clinical picture stabilized. Conclusion. Ciliochoroidal effusion may occur in the eyes with primary angle-closure glaucoma even several years after surgical treatment in the setting of the use of this group of hypotensive drugs. It is necessary to take a balanced approach to the use of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors in each particular case, including in primary angle-closure glaucoma. Key words: choroidal effusion, glaucoma, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, fixed combinations, brimonidine, ophthalmic hypotension.

Трудности диагностики инфаркта миокарда нижней стенки левого желудочка с вовлечением правого желудочка

The article presents a clinical observation of myocardial infarction (MI) of the inferior wall of the left ventricle (LV) with ST-segment elevation in combination with damage to the right ventricle (RV). Unfortunately, there is often a delay in the timely diagnosis of RV involvement in the process. This is because, at the beginning of the symptoms, it may not differ clinically from the typical manifestations of MI of the inferior-diaphragmatic region of the LV. However, the combination of LV inferior wall MI with RV MI is an important, negative predictor of increased mortality in these patients. In this case, RV MI was diagnosed after stenting of the right coronary artery, only when signs of hypotension and increased pressure of the jugular veins appeared. Based on the analysis of this clinical case, the authors discuss the need to record an ECG of the right heart in most patients with inferior MI, especially in the presence of hypotension without signs of acute left ventricular failure.

Implementation of LabVIEW as a Virtual Instrument in a Cost‐Effective Isolated Lung Setup

IntroductionIsolated lung experiments allow for ex vivo characterization of lung function and prove to be a valuable model for various fields such as cancer, lung transplantation, and ischemia/reperfusion injury. Unlike other models that require damaging the lung, the isolated lung allows for collection of physiological changes including airway pressure, pulmonary artery and vein pressure, airway flow, and, in our model, ventilated gas concentrations. We describe the use of LabVIEW combined with the free statistical software R for highly flexible, effective, and automated data collection in an isolated lung system.MethodsPressure transducers connected to bioamplifiers allow for collection of dynamic pulmonary artery and vein pressures, while airway pressure and flow are collected from the ventilator with the former used to visualize positive end expiratory pressure. Signals from these devices are connected to an analog‐digital converter from National InstrumentsTM that collects data into LabVIEW software, which is then automatically collected and displayed at 200Hz. Use of a roller pump with analog input/output allows for fully automated control of the perfusion speed. Output from a gas mixer for use in ventilated gas studies is collected and used to generate gas composition data. Additional experimental data that do not have signal output capability can be recorded manually in LabVIEW.ResultsLabVIEW is a reliable alternative to other commercially available data acquisition systems. The creation of a virtual instrument requires significant programming knowledge but allows for completely customizable data collection in a modular isolated lung system. Data become available in an Excel‐compatible file which can then be imported and analysed in R as another affordable alternative to commercial programs.ConclusionWe describe the design and implementation of a LabVIEW virtual instrument as an adjustable alternative to conventional data acquisition systems.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported, in part, by institutional funds, NIH grant (5R01 HL123227), and a Merit Review Award (I01 BX003482) from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Biomedical Laboratory R&D Service.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Preliminary study on the hemodynamics of Cognard type IV dural arteriovenous fistulas with venous aneurysm

Objective To explore the hemodynamic features of venous aneurysms in Cognard type Ⅳ dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVF). Methods Computational fluid dynamics analysis was conducted in 7 venous aneurysms of 4 patients who received endovascular treatment at Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital between July 2017 and December 2017. All 4 patients experienced no intracranial bleeding before intervention. Results Average flow velocity was 0.030 (0.002-1.567) m/s in the 7 aneurysms and 0.092 (0.050-2.235) m/s in drainage veins. The difference was not statistically significant (P=0.248). Average pressures in fistula area, venous aneurysm and drainage veins were 7 394.9(6 087.3-7 977.0) Pa, 4 882.2 (3 697.8-7 004.7) Pa and 3 439.1 (3 337.2-5 612.9) Pa, respectively. Median values of average wall shear stress (WSS) were 10.22 (4.07-13.58) Pa in fistula area, 4.11 (0.24-13.95) Pa in venous aneurysms and 7.61 (5.16-12.90) Pa in drainage veins. On the draining system, average pressure in venous aneurysms were higher when compared with drainage veins, but the difference was not significant in statistics (W=39, P=0.072), however, average WSS were significantly lower in venous aneurysms (W=8, P=0.040). For the 2 cases with multiple venous aneurysms, high WSS area was identified in the inflow area of subsequent venous aneurysms. Conclusion Preliminary results have indicated that WSS of venous aneurysms is lower compared with drainage veins, and high WSS area is present on drainage veins distal to the venous aneurysm. The relationship between WSS and venous aneurysm rupture requires further validation in future studies. Key words: Arteriovenous fistula; Hemodynamics; Dural; Venous aneurysms

P2879Recurrence of atrial fibrillation after catheter ablation is associated with fibrotic marker in coronary sinus vein and left atrium pressure

P2879Recurrence of atrial fibrillation after catheter ablation is associated with fibrotic marker in coronary sinus vein and left atrium pressure

Atrial Fibrillation and Left Ventricle Dysfunction Relationship (New Concept)

Aim: Atrial Fibrillation (AF) is the most common cardiac arrhythmia. The numerous researches about the causes, the mechanism of its development and its links with other diseases have not given definite answers to these many questions. I propose a hypothesis which can explain the reason for the development of AF, its correlation with various diseases and the interpretations of the well- known facts and phenomena associated with this arrhythmia. Methods and results: The hypothesis results from the comparison of the hydrodynamics of the sinus rhythm and atrial fibrillation. According to this hypothesis AF is not a disease, but the protective physiological mechanism. In the conditions of left ventricle dysfunction/heart failure, the termination of the atrial mechanical systole reduces hydrostatic pressure in the pulmonary veins and alveolar capillaries which then reduces danger of pulmonary congestion. The hypothesis allows to build the algorithms of the relations between AF and various diseases. Conclusion: The hypothesis suggested that AF is a physiological protective mechanism that is activated in the conditions of LV dysfunction.

Proximal spleno-renal shunt with retro-aortic left renal vein in a patient with extra-hepatic portal vein obstruction: first case report

BackgroundPresence of retro-aortic left renal vein poses special challenge in creating spleno-renal shunt potentially increasing the chance of shunt failure. The technical feasibility and successful outcome of splenectomy with proximal spleno-renal shunt (PSRS) with retro-aortic left renal vein is presented for the first time. The patient was treated for portal hypertension and hypersplenism due to idiopathic extra-hepatic portal vein obstruction.Case presentationA twenty year old male suffering from idiopathic extra-hepatic portal vein obstruction presented with bleeding esophageal varices, portal hypertensive gastropathy, asymptomatic portal biliopathy and symptomatic hypersplenism. As variceal bleeding did not respond to endoscopic and medical treatment, surgical portal decompression was planned. On preoperative contrast enhanced computed tomography retro-aortic left renal vein was detected. Splenectomy with proximal splenorenal shunt with retro-aortic left renal vein was successfully performed by using specific technical steps including adequate mobilisation of retro-aortic left renal vein and per-operative pressure studies. Perioperative course was uneventful and patient is doing well after 3 years of follow up.ConclusionsPSRS is feasible, safe and effective procedure when done with retro-aortic left renal vein for the treatment of portal hypertension related to extra-hepatic portal vein obstruction provided that attention is given to key technical considerations including pressure studies necessary to ensure effective shunt. Present case provides the first evidence that retro-aortic left renal vein can withstand the extra volume of blood flow through the proximal shunt with effective portal decompression so as to treat all the components of extra-hepatic portal vein obstruction without causing renal venous hypertension.

The predictive value of haemodynamic parameters for outcome of deep venous reconstructions in patients with chronic deep vein obstruction - A systematic review.

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive value of haemodynamic parameters on success of stenting or bypass surgery in patients with non-thrombotic or post-thrombotic deep venous obstruction. Methods EMBASE, MEDLINE and trial registries were searched up to 5 February 2016. Studies needed to investigate stenting or bypass surgery in patients with post-thrombotic obstruction or stenting for non-thrombotic iliac vein compression. Haemodynamic data needed to be available with prognostic analysis for success of treatment. Two authors, independently, selected studies and extracted data with risk bias assessment using the Quality in Prognosis Studies tool. Results Two studies using stenting and two using bypass surgery were included. Three investigated plethysmography, though results varied and confounding was not properly taken into account. Dorsal foot vein pressure and venous refill times appeared to be of influence in one study, though confounding by deep vein incompetence was likely. Another investigated femoral-central pressure gradients without finding statistical significance, though sample size was small without details on statistical methodology. Reduced femoral inflow was found to be a predictor for stent stenosis or occlusion in one study, though patients also received additional surgery to improve stent inflow. Data on prediction of haemodynamic parameters for stenting of non-thrombotic iliac vein compression were not available. Conclusions Data on the predictive value of haemodynamic parameters for success of treatment in deep venous obstructive disease are scant and of poor quality. Plethysmography does not seem to be of value in predicting outcome of stenting or bypass surgery in post-thrombotic disease. The relevance of pressure-related parameters is unclear. Reduced flow into the common femoral vein seems to be predictive for in-stent stenosis or occlusion. Further research into the predictive effect of haemodynamic parameters is warranted and the possibility of developing new techniques that evaluate various haemodynamic aspects should be explored.

Volume and its relationship to cardiac output and venous return.

Volume infusions are one of the commonest clinical interventions in critically ill patients yet the relationship of volume to cardiac output is not well understood. Blood volume has a stressed and unstressed component but only the stressed component determines flow. It is usually about 30 % of total volume. Stressed volume is relatively constant under steady state conditions. It creates an elastic recoil pressure that is an important factor in the generation of blood flow. The heart creates circulatory flow by lowering the right atrial pressure and allowing the recoil pressure in veins and venules to drain blood back to the heart. The heart then puts the volume back into the systemic circulation so that stroke return equals stroke volume. The heart cannot pump out more volume than comes back. Changes in cardiac output without changes in stressed volume occur because of changes in arterial and venous resistances which redistribute blood volume and change pressure gradients throughout the vasculature. Stressed volume also can be increased by decreasing vascular capacitance, which means recruiting unstressed volume into stressed volume. This is the equivalent of an auto-transfusion. It is worth noting that during exercise in normal young males, cardiac output can increase five-fold with only small changes in stressed blood volume. The mechanical characteristics of the cardiac chambers and the circulation thus ultimately determine the relationship between volume and cardiac output and are the subject of this review.

EFFECT OF ANTIVIRAL THERAPY ON CARDIOHEMODYNAMIC INDICATORS IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC VIRAL HEPATITIS AND LIVER CIRRHOSIS

Aim. To study the effect of antiviral therapy (AVT) on some cardiohemodynamics indicators in patients with chronic viral hepatitis (CVH) and viral liver cirrhosis (VLC). Material and methods. Doppler echocardiography, tissue Doppler echocardiography, 24-hour ECG monitoring, assessment of the blood flow in the portal vein and in the splenic artery were performed in patients with CVH (n=16) and VLC (n=16) initially and after the course of AVT with interferon and ribavirin leading to sustained virological response. Results. The improvement of systolic and diastolic function of the left ventricle (LV), decrease inLV myocardial mass (from 170 [225.5;213.5] to 159 [146;167] g; p<0.001), and size of the left atrium (LA; from 37 [34;40] to 35.5 [33;38] mm; p<0.001) were found in patients with CVH after AVT. Reduction in the autonomic nervous system tonus was also observed. Decrease in the blood flow rate in the splenic artery (from 107 [95;126.2] to 77 [67.2;99] cm/s; p<0.001) and in the portal vein (from 29 [20;31] to 19 [18;23] cm/s; p<0.001) were detected. Reduction inLV myocardial mass, LA size, systolic blood pressure in pulmonary artery (from 34 [29;38] to 30 [26;31] mm Hg; p<0.001), and the autonomic nervous system tonus were also observed after AVT in patients with VLC. The correlations between the maximum speed of the first negative peak (Em) in the mitral valve fibrous ring and increased viral load (r=0.31; p<0.05), as well as between the diameter of the portal vein and pulmonary artery pressure (r=0.77, p<0.05) were found. Conclusion. Results of the study suggest that patients received AVT have better cardiohemodynamic indicators than patients without specific treatment.

Successful Treatment of Cerebral Arterial Gas Embolism Following Uneventful TBNA

Fibrobronchoscopy is commonly considered a safe procedure with a low major complication rate not including cerebral arterial gas embolism (CAGE) a severe life threatening iatrogenic complication. Several cases of transbronchial needle aspiration (TBNA) has been related with CAGE when patient happens to have the high airway pressure that exceeds the pressure of the pulmonary veins allowing the air to enter the systemic circulation through the left heart. HBOT is the only effective treatment available for CAGE that provides 100% oxygen at high pressure, which accelerates nitrogen reabsorption and improves oxygenation of ischemic tissue. We reported a case of successful treatment with full recovery after early Hyperbaric Oxygen therapy of CAGE induced by an uneventful transbronchial biopsy during fibrobronchoscopy.

Experimental Measurements of Energy Augmentation for Mechanical Circulatory Assistance in a Patient-Specific Fontan Model

A mechanical blood pump specifically designed to increase pressure in the great veins would improve hemodynamic stability in adolescent and adult Fontan patients having dysfunctional cavopulmonary circulation. This study investigates the impact of axial-flow blood pumps on pressure, flow rate, and energy augmentation in the total cavopulmonary circulation (TCPC) using a patient-specific Fontan model. The experiments were conducted for three mechanical support configurations, which included an axial-flow impeller alone in the inferior vena cava (IVC) and an impeller with one of two different protective stent designs. All of the pump configurations led to an increase in pressure generation and flow in the Fontan circuit. The increase in IVC flow was found to augment pulmonary arterial flow, having only a small impact on the pressure and flow in the superior vena cava (SVC). Retrograde flow was neither observed nor measured from the TCPC junction into the SVC. All of the pump configurations enhanced the rate of power gain of the cavopulmonary circulation by adding energy and rotational force to the fluid flow. We measured an enhancement of forward flow into the TCPC junction, reduction in IVC pressure, and only minimally increased pulmonary arterial pressure under conditions of pump support.

Duffy antigen / receptor for chemokines correlates with inflammatory reaction in rats with venous hypertension: implication for the pathogenesis of primary chronic venous disease

Duffy antigen / receptor for chemokines (DARC) possesses high affinity for several chemokine subgroups of CC and CXC. Although DARC has been shown to play a role in many inflammatory diseases, its effect on chronic venous disease (CVD) remains unidentified. We explored whether the expression of DARC in skin tissue was activated under venous hypertension as well as the relationships between DARC and inflammation. The inflammation in a rat model of venous hypertension caused by a femoral arterial-venous fistula (AVF) was studied. At specified intervals the pressure in the femoral veins was recorded within 42 days. Hindlimb skin specimens were harvested at different time points. The expressions of DARC, interleukin-8 (IL-8), and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) in skin tissue were examined. Mononuclear cells infiltrated in skin tissue were detected. Femoral venous pressures in AVF groups increased significantly at different time points (P < 0.01). DARC was expressed in skin tissue and its expression level increased significantly in AVF groups from the 7nd day on and was enhanced in a time-dependent manner within 42 days (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, both MCP-1 and IL-8 had higher levels, accompanied by increased mononuclear cells infiltrating into skin tissue (P < 0.05). A rat AVF model which can maintain venous hypertension for at least 42 days is competent for researching the pathogenesis of CVD. DARC, which plays a role in the inflammation of skin tissue under venous hypertension, may become a new molecular target for diagnosis and treatment of CVD at a very early stage.

Correlation between cross-sectional area of the internal jugular vein and central venous pressure

Correlation between cross-sectional area of the internal jugular vein and central venous pressure