Loss Of Vegetation Research Articles

Effectiveness of protected areas in the Caucasus Mountains in preventing rangeland degradation.

As land use intensifies globally, it increasingly exerts pressure on protected areas. Despite open, nonforested landscapes comprising up to 40% of protected areas globally, assessments have predominately focused on forests, overlooking the major pressures on rangelands from livestock overgrazing and land conversion. Across the southern Caucasus, a biodiversity hotspot extending over 5 countries, we conducted a broadscale assessment of the extent to which protected areas mitigate land-use pressure on rangelands in them. Using satellite-based indicators of rangeland vegetation greenness from 1988 to 2019, we assessed the effectiveness of 52 protected areas. This period encompassed the collapse of the Soviet Union, economic crises, armed conflicts, and a major expansion of the protected area network. We applied matching statistics combined with fixed-effects panel regressions to quantify the effectiveness of protected areas in curbing degradation as indicated by green vegetation loss. Protected areas were, overall, largely ineffective. Green vegetation loss was higher inside than outside protected areas in most countries, except for Georgia and Turkey. Multiple-use protected areas (IUCN categories IV-VI) were even more ineffective in reducing vegetation loss than strictly protected areas (I & II), highlighting the need for better aligning conservation and development targets in these areas. Mapping >10,000 livestock corrals from satellite images showed that protected areas with a relatively high density of livestock corrals had markedly high green vegetation loss. Ineffectiveness appeared driven by livestock overgrazing. Our key finding was that protected areas did not curb rangeland degradation in the Caucasus. This situation is likely emblematic of many regions worldwide, which highlights the need to incorporate degradation and nonforest ecosystems into effectiveness assessments.

Physio-Metabolic Mechanisms Behind Postharvest Quality Deterioration in Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. Italica) and Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. Cicla): A Review

Leafy vegetables are among the potential foods that can combat food insecurity in developing countries. Their major drawback is a short shelf life, which limits their supply chain and is commonly associated with their high metabolic activities. Leafy vegetables have a high water content, which determines their freshness. Moisture loss through respiration and transpiration at postharvest storage is one quality attribute that leads to rapid quality deterioration. Little has been carried out in studying the mechanisms associated with the quality deterioration of leafy vegetables; however, understanding these mechanisms may aid in developing effective preservation measures. Furthermore, recent literature reviews that focus on discussing the mechanisms that lead to quality loss in leafy vegetables are scarce. The current paper aims to review the physiological and biochemical processes associated with quality deterioration in leafy vegetables. The respiration, ethylene production, moisture loss, colour, and texture are highly associated with the quality deterioration of fresh produce and, thus will be discussed critically in selected leafy vegetables, namely: broccoli and Swiss chard. The findings from this review indicate that the quality deterioration in leafy vegetables is primarily enzymatic. Understanding the mechanisms of quality deterioration involves identifying the specific enzymes responsible for each metabolic process and examining the internal and external factors that influence enzyme activities.

Assessment of Vegetation Drought Loss and Recovery in Central Asia Considering a Comprehensive Vegetation Index

In the context of drought events caused by global warming, there is limited understanding of vegetation loss caused by drought and the subsequent recovery of vegetation after drought ends. However, employing a single index representing a specific vegetation characteristic to explore drought’s impact on vegetation may overlook vegetation features and introduce increased uncertainty. We applied the enhanced vegetation index (EVI), fraction of vegetation cover (FVC), gross primary production (GPP), leaf area index (LAI), and our constructed remote sensing vegetation index (RSVI) to assess vegetation drought in Central Asia. We analyzed the differences in drought experiences for different climatic regions and vegetation types and vegetation loss and recovery following drought events. The results indicate that during drought years (2012 and 2019), the differences in vegetation drought across climatic regions were considerable. The vegetation in arid, semiarid, and Mediterranean climate regions was more susceptible to drought. The different indices used to assess vegetation loss exhibited varying degrees of dynamic changes, with vegetation in a state of mild drought experiencing more significantly during drought events. The different vegetation assessment indices exhibited significant variations during the drought recovery periods (with a recovery period of 16 days: EVI of 85%, FVC of 50%, GPP of 84%, LAI of 61%, and RSVI of 44%). Moreover, the required recovery periods tended to decrease from arid to humid climates, influenced by both climate regions and vegetation types. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the primary climatic factors leading to vegetation loss varied depending on the assessment indices used. The proposed RSVI demonstrates high sensitivity, correlation, and interpretability to dry–wet variations and can be used to assess the impact of drought on vegetation. These findings are essential for water resource management and the implementation of measures that mitigate vegetation drought.

Recent Advancements in Harnessing Lactic Acid Bacterial Metabolites for Fruits and Vegetables Preservation.

Postharvest losses in fruits and vegetables exert substantial economic and environmental repercussions. Chemical interventions are being widely utilized for the past six decades which may lead to significant health complications. Bioprotection of fruits and vegetables is the need of the hour in which use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) with GRAS status predominantly stands out. Incorporation of LAB in postharvest fruits and vegetables suppresses the growth of spoilage organisms by synthesizing various antimicrobial compounds such as bacteriocins, organic acids, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), exopolysaccharides (EPS), and BLIS. For example, Pediococcus acidilactici, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Limosilactobacillus fermentum convert natural sugars in fruits and vegetables to lactic acid and create an acidic environment that do not favour spoilage organisms. LAB can improve the bioavailability of vitamins and minerals and enrich the phenolic profile and bioactivity components. LAB has remarkable physiological characteristics like resistance towards bacteriophage, proteolytic activity, and polysaccharide production which adds to the safety of foods. They modify the sensory properties and preserve the nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables. They can also perform therapeutic role in the intestinal tract as they tolerate low pH, high salt concentration. Thus application of LAB, whether independently or in conjunction with stabilizing agents as edible coatings, is regarded as an exceptionally promising methodology for ensuring safer consumption of fruits and vegetables. This review addresses the most recent research findings that harness the antagonistic property of lactic acid bacterial metabolites, formulations and coatings containing their bioactive compounds for extended shelf life of fruits and vegetables.

Application of the Analytic Network Process for Sub-Watershed Prioritization in the Huehuetan River Basin, Chiapas, Mexico

Sub-watershed prioritization is essential for developing watershed management plans that maximize impact with minimal resources. This study used a multicriteria decision-making approach to rank sub-watersheds by degradation status in the Huehuetan River Basin, Chiapas, Mexico. The eight sub-watersheds in the basin were classified using the Analytic Network Process (ANP) model, evaluating morphometry, hydrology, hillslope stability, soil water saturation, land-use change, and socioeconomic factors. The results identified hydrology and land-use change as the most influential criteria, with weights of 20.62% and 19.82%, respectively, driven mainly by surface runoff and deforestation. Swtr 08 and Swtr 07 were identified as the highest-priority sub-watersheds, covering 24.31% of the basin area, with 55.31% of Swtr 08 classified as unstable and showing a combined high-vegetation loss of 16.46 km2. The entire watershed showed an annual vegetation loss rate of 146 ha year−1. Increasing the weighting by 50% resulted in greater variability in priority rankings, with runoff and low vegetation showing maximum global ranges of −44.33% and 30.25%, respectively, instability decreasing by 33.94%, and peak flow increasing by 18.20%. These findings emphasize the need for focused interventions in the vulnerable subwatersheds of the upper basin to manage runoff, curb deforestation, and reduce soil instability.

Automatic detection of landslide impact areas using Google Earth Engine

This research introduces an effective framework for automatically detecting landslide impact areas using Google Earth Engine (GEE). The Asia–Pacific region frequently experiences earthquakes and heavy rainfall, leading to frequent landslides that cause loss of life and property. Focusing on landslide catalogues from Taiwan and Japan, the study proposes an automatic landslide detection process using a new method termed multi-bitemporal images (MBTIs), which involves the collection of accumulated changes over time. First, set the event date and collect all images before and after the event. Second, analyse the change pixels in bi-temporal images. Third, review all change pixels to determine the total amount of accumulated changes. This method includes all bi-temporal image sets in the analysis, unlike traditional methods that only use single pairs of bi-temporal images. Clouds are filtered using a pixel-based approach and machine learning techniques. The landslide areas are analysed statistically, and appropriate thresholds for automatic landslide detection are suggested. Using reproducibility, which indicates the percentage of bi-temporal images that detect vegetation loss in mountainous areas, the proposed method achieves a 99% reduction in false positives with a reproducibility requirement of 24.21%, while maintaining true positives at 66.89%. This study analyzed 28–720 bi-temporal image sets from various regions using Sentinel-2 data, revealing that subsequent landslides can be 7–293 times larger than co-seismic landslides. In comparison, subsequent landslides were found to be 3–12 times larger than rainfall-induced landslides. Additionally, the impact of earthquake event on subsequent landslides is 2.3–24.4 times greater than that of rainfall-induced event. By using GEE, the accumulation of hundreds of satellite images can be completed within 15 min, depending on the processing requirements.

Price Spread, Marketing Efficiency and Postharvest Losses in Marketing of Selected kharif Vegetables in Palghar District of Maharashtra State, India

Vegetables play an important role both in the regional and national economy of the agricultural sector. These crops are generally of short duration. The post-harvest losses in kharif vegetables due to insufficient storage, packaging, transportation, and handling technologies for perishable crops, such as vegetables, lead to significant wastage. The present study was undertaken to estimate these losses at various stages and price spread of selected vegetables in study area. The study was conducted in Palghar district of Maharashtra, involving 90 farmers, 6 commission agents, 9 wholesalers and 30 retailers, that the study involves multiple groups of stakeholders (farmers, commission agents, wholesalers, and retailers), with specific numbers from each group. The sampling technique used in this case likely purposive sampling. The important kharif vegetables were identified for the detailed analysis. In of case brinjal the total postharvest losses were 12.62 kg/q. out of which maximum postharvest losses of brinjal vegetables was observed to be highest (4.62 kg/q), at retailer level followed by (3.2 kg/q) at wholesaler level and (1.65 kg/q) at commission agent level. Similarly in case of okra, postharvest losses in kharif season was estimated to 13.52 kg /q, out of which the retailers level postharvest losses was highest at (5.12 kg/q), followed by (3.78 kg /q) at wholesaler level, (2.87 kg /q) at farmer level and (1.75 kg/q) at commission agent level .Whereas for cowpea total postharvest losses was workout to 12.73 kg/q out of which 4.12 kg /q postharvest losses was observed at retailer level, 3.65 kg /q losses at wholesaler level, 3.08 kg /q at farmer level and 1.88 kg /q postharvest losses at commission agent level. In study were identified channel-I (Producer-Commission agent-wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer), channel-II (Producer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer) and channel-III(Producer-Consumer). For brinjal, the price spread was Rs. 2962.91 in Channel-I and Rs. 2634.72 in Channel II, with marketing efficiency of 1.01, 1.24, and 33.76 in Channels-I, II, and III, respectively. Channel-III exhibited the highest marketing efficiency, while Channel II had the lowest price spread. For okra, the price spread was Rs. 1939.70 in Channel-I and Rs. 1733.20 in Channel II, with marketing efficiency of 1.51, 1.85, and 28.84 in Channels-I, II, and III, respectively. Channel II demonstrated the highest marketing efficiency and lowest price spread. In the case of cowpea, the price spread was Rs. 4000 in Channel-I and Rs. 3260 in Channel-II, with marketing efficiency of 0.91, 1.76, and 29.76 in Channels -I, II, and III, respectively. Again, Channel III provided the highest efficiency, while Channel II had the lowest price spread. Channel-III emerged as the most efficient channel for all crops due to the direct sale to consumers, resulting in the highest marketing efficiency. Channel-II also showed better efficiency, especially in okra, while Channel-I consistently had the lowest efficiency across all crops.

The Impact of Drought on Vegetation at Basin Scale: A Case Study of the Wei River Basin, China

Droughts in the Weihe River Basin are occurring more frequently and are becoming more intense. These events negatively affect industrial production, economic development, and ecosystems. Studying how vegetation changes in response to them is of practical significance. We report temporal and spatial trends in vegetation cover, use a copula function to analyze relationships between drought and vegetation cover, and assess the probability of vegetation loss in different drought scenarios. A vegetation index trends upwards from north to south in this basin; from 2001 to 2017, vegetation cover also trends upward in most areas, although it decreases in areas with high vegetation cover. An escalated susceptibility to drought has been observed in the southern and eastern sectors, where proximity to the riverbank correlates with heightened drought sensitivity, particularly in zones of intensified vegetation density. The probability of vegetation loss at the same vegetation loss preset point gradually increases with increased drought severity. These results will facilitate the formulation of countermeasures to prevent and combat the effects of drought on vegetation and land management.

Harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones) from the Atlantic Forest-Cerrado transition zone of Luminárias, southern Minas Gerais state, Brazil

The Cerrado and Atlantic Forest biomes are global biodiversity hotspots. However, these environments still face large knowledge gaps concerning fauna inventory studies, such as those on harvestmen. Our study aimed to sample harvestmen species in a transition area between the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado, contributing to future biodiversity assessments and conservation efforts in Brazil. The surveys were conducted in the municipality of Luminárias, southern Minas Gerais state, between May 2023 and March 2024. We collected 185 individuals from six species and three morphospecies with a wide geographical distribution, but whose conservation status has not been assessed, which may affect their protection. Additionally, loss of native vegetation may lead to reductions in their populations. Our study supports current literature, which suggests the need for more inventories and the creation of a Conservation Unit in the Luminárias region.

Estimation of carbon stocks in the areas of a seasonally dry tropical forest in the Brazilian semi-arid region

In addition to its ecological importance, the Caatinga biome, one of the most extensive seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTF) in the world, has a relevant socioeconomic role as it is used as a primary natural resource by local communities. However, inadequate ecosystem management practices have resulted in gradual loss of natural vegetation in this ecosystem. Carbon stock estimation is a parameter that can contribute as a support tool for managing and maintaining the few remaining natural vegetated areas. In this study, we calibrated and validated the CENTURY model to simulate carbon stocks in areas of the Caatinga, in the state of Pernambuco, and compared the predictive capacity of the CENTURY model with available estimates. In the validation dataset, the average for biomass stocks was 33.1 Mg C ha−1, this value is close to those observed in the literature for the region. The model also performed well when estimating carbon stocks in the soil (r2 = 0.79, p = 0.017). Ecosystem modeling combined with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a promising tool for estimating carbon stocks in the Caatinga, where field sampling campaigns are generally expensive and have scarce research funding opportunities. Furthermore, it also allows the evaluation of the effect of environmental changes on C stocks in long-term studies, which is essential for creating and implementing public policies to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change on the ecosystem. However, additional efforts are needed to improve C estimates, especially in areas with a strongly negative water balance.

The interplay between urbanization, vegetation loss and surface heat island in cities: two decadal empirical evidence from Pakistan

The interplay between urbanization, vegetation loss and surface heat island in cities: two decadal empirical evidence from Pakistan

Thermal evaluation of solar dryers and the effect on the antioxidant and some physicochemical properties of Agastache mexicana and Rosmarinus officinalis.

Lemon balm (Agastache mexicana) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) were dried using a mixed-mode solar dryer. A 23-factorial design was carried out: operation mode (mesh shade and direct irradiance), airflow (natural convection and forced convection), and type of flat plate solar collector cover (polycarbonate and glass). The drying kinetics of lemon balm and rosemary ranged from 4.5 to 6.5h and 4 to 7h, respectively, according to the operation mode of the solar dryer. The highest percentage of antioxidant activity in the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil tests was lemon balm, with values between 88% and 93% (100µg/mL), and rosemary, 88% and 92% (100µg/mL). When forced convection was applied, solar collector thermal efficiency increased from 3.97%-5.11% to 17.20%-24.75%, dryer efficiencies ranged from 4.78% to 6.05%, and drying efficiencies between 14.17% and 44.23%. The lowest color difference (6.01) for lemon balm was shown with the mesh shade, forced convection, and glass cover collector, and for rosemary, the lowest color difference (12.87) resulted from using the mesh shade and natural convection; according to the analysis of variance, the cover collector did not affect significantly the color difference. Dehydrated lemon balm and rosemary could be used as an additive for medicinal, gastronomic, and food preservative applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The results are significant for designing dryers for community centers in areas where the production and losses of fruits, vegetables, aromatic herbs, and edible flowers are high. The novelty of this research is to introduce a new product for the consumer; in this case, the traditional dried rosemary and lemon balm in powder form as a nutritional source, both for the preparation of remedies and for direct consumption in dishes, powders, or healthy pills and food supplements.

Fruit and vegetables loss and waste in preschools belonging to the National Board of Kindergartens of Chile.

Food waste is a global issue affecting society from environmental, nutritional, and social perspectives. In collaboration with the National Board of Preschools, fruit and vegetable waste generated during the preparation of lunch was quantified in four preschools in the Metropolitan area of Santiago in Chile. This study was conducted in four preschools, two in the Western area of Santiago and two in the Eastern area, of which two hold environmental quality certifications. Over a five-day period, the weight of raw materials and waste from vegetables (peels) and fruit (pomace) were measured. Percentages of vegetable and fruit post-cleaning losses and waste were evaluated. Vegetable loss exceeded 20% in 31% of the preschools, primarily from carrots and potatoes. Fruit losses were higher, with pears accounting for the most significant waste, recorded in 75% of the study centers. No differences in vegetable loss was found between centers, while variations were observed for fruit. Preschools with environmental quality certifications wasted less onions (p = 0.016) but more pears (p = 0.036). There is higher fruit loss than vegetable loss, with onions and tomatoes being the least wasted. Possessing an environmental quality certification does not guarantee a significant reduction in overall losses. Handling and storage conditions may play a key role in minimizing losses. Further studies are needed to provide evidence that can guide improvements in Chile's National Board of Preschools services, aiming for a more sustainable lunch preparation processes.

Satellite measurement of forest disturbance, recovery and deposit distribution following explosive volcanic eruptions

The characteristics and extent of forest damage, and the subsequent patterns of recovery, reflect the intensity of an explosive volcanic eruption and have the potential to be a novel proxy for eruption magnitude and impact. Using satellite measurements of vegetation damage and recovery patterns, following the 2015 explosive eruption of Calbuco, Chile, we assess the impact on surrounding temperate forests and how areas impacted by different deposit types recover post-eruption. The Calbuco eruption resulted in tephra deposition over hundreds of square kilometres, pyroclastic flows extending 6 km and lahars extending 15 km. We explore NDVI derived from optical imagery (June 2013–May 2023) as well as radar backscatter and phase coherence (October 2014–June 2023) through time series analysis, clustering and estimation of recovery timescales to find patterns in forest disturbance and recovery. We find that forest damage and recovery correspond primarily with deposit type, thickness and dispersal directions. The thickest tephra deposits (> 40 cm) correlate with the most vegetation loss, so our vegetation impact maps allow us to refine the spatial mapping of tephra fall-deposit isopachs to give a revised eruption volume of 0.28 km3. Vegetation recovery rates relate to initial impact type and intensity, but also local topography, aspect and altitude. Our results demonstrate a novel application of optical and radar satellite remote sensing to determine eruption extents and magnitudes through vegetation disturbance. We show that measuring vegetation disturbance, particularly in remote and densely vegetated environments, can help refine field-based analyses in inaccessible or intensely damaged zones.

Morphometric analysis and LULC change dynamics of Nayar watershed for the sustainable watershed management

The morphometric analysis of the watersheds is essential for the conservation of natural resources, including soil, water, and vegetation. The Morphometric analysis defines the linear, areal and relief aspects of the watershed. It involves the comprehensive analysis of various factors such as drainage network, surface water flow, and other topographical features. The aim of this study is to develop a sustainable watershed management strategy for the Nayar watershed based on morphometry and Land Use Land Cover (LULC) change dynamics. The Nayar watershed has a total area of 1956.33 km2. The multispectral satellite imagery, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, and Survey of India (SOI) Toposheets were used for understanding the topographical and morphological characteristics along with the LULC change dynamics. The findings of this research conclude that the Nayar watershed has parallel and dendritic drainage patterns with high relief. According to the LULC change dynamics, the Nayar watershed's area change comprising 57.60 km2 and 57.15 km2, are from Agricultural Land to Wasteland and from Forest Cover to Wasteland, respectively. This shift in the hilly region will increase the risks of landslides and erosion. Furthermore, the change of 110.03 km2 area of Forest Cover to Agricultural Land raises further challenges due to loss of natural vegetation in long run. In summary the change in LULC of Nayar watershed is vulnerable to risk of natural calamities like landslide, erosion. This work would be helpful to many experts and decision-makers for sustainable watershed management and natural resource management.

Mathematical modelling of vacuum cooling of leafy vegetables using bidirectional conjugate model combining heat and mass transfer with leaf structural deformation

The numerical model is an effective solution to regulate the uneven temperature distribution, water loss, and structural shrinkage of leafy vegetables during vacuum cooling (VC). Nevertheless, the developed models mainly concentrate on the heat and mass transfer of leafy vegetables during the cooling, ignoring the structural deformation and its interaction with heat and mass transfer. For a better understanding of the cooling process, a macroscopic bidirectional coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) model was developed to describe the VC of leafy vegetables using spinach as a representative case. The simulations, validated by the experimental results, accurately predicted the changes in vapour pressure, weight loss, evaporation rate, moisture concentration, and shrinkage of the leafy vegetable, as well as the cooling gradients of the stem, blade, midvein, and lateral veins. Results showed that the cooling of the blade was easier, but the cooling gradient of the blade was lower than that of the leaf stem, with a maximum temperature gradient of stem, veins, and blade after cooling being 2.09 °C. Reducing the cooling end pressure could shorten the cooling time to the desired cooling temperature and minimise the water loss. Sensitivity analysis revealed that porosity significantly affected the changes in temperature, moisture concentration, and shrinkage. Notably, water evaporation was the primary reason for the shrinkage of the leaf tip and edge, but the contraction of the solid matrix cannot significantly aggravate further water evaporation. These findings highlight the potential of the THM model to promote the commercialisation of VC for leaf vegetables.

Warming reality of Kozhikode Urban Area: Uncovering the heat of built-up expansion and vegetation loss

Urban expansion often comes at the expense of natural landscapes, leading to increased temperatures and environmental degradation. This study examines the effects of urbanization on land cover changes and their implications for land surface temperature (LST) by analyzing normalized difference satellite indices in the Kozhikode Urban Area (KUA), a city where substantial urbanization has significantly impacted the natural environment. By investigating changes in vegetation and impervious surfaces from 1993 to 2022, the research highlights a troubling trend: while vegetation cover has sharply declined, impermeable surfaces like roads and buildings have surged, contributing to a dramatic rise in average temperatures. The study reveals that built-up areas significantly elevate LST, whereas vegetation and water bodies offer cooling effects. The results underscore the urgent need for integrating green infrastructure into urban planning to combat rising temperatures and enhance environmental sustainability. This research emphasizes the importance of considering smaller, vegetation-rich cities like Kozhikode in broader urban heat research, as they present unique challenges and opportunities for effective climate adaptation strategies. By highlighting these issues, this study aims to inform policymakers and urban planners about the critical role of urban greening in mitigating the effects of climate change and fostering sustainable urban environments.

Exploring the impacts of urbanization on vegetation growth from the perspective of urban expansion patterns and maturity: A case study on 40 large cities in China

Rapid urbanization replaces vegetation with build-up land, which threatens green spaces and the well-being of residents. In this study, the urban expansion patterns (UEPs) of build-up land from 2000 to 2020 were identified for 40 typical large cities in China, and their urban maturity (UM) was quantified. The different UEPs and UM types were used to analyze the comprehensive impacts of different types of cities on vegetation growth at different urbanization expansion intensity gradients. Finally, the relationship between different driving forces and the urban ecological effects was explored. The results showed that mature cities and the infilling cities experienced vegetation loss while other UEPs and UM levels resulted in increased vegetation growth. In particular, laggard cities and looser UEPs were able to effectively offset the direct vegetation loss caused by urbanization. The UM level had a high driving effect on the urban ecological offset. In the future, the scale and speed of urbanization can be optimized to reasonable levels and the urban ecological restoration should be strengthened to meet the needs of ecological security. This study contributes to explore the effectiveness of the urbanization process and land management.

Landscape transition-induced ecological risk modeling using GIS and remote sensing techniques: a case of Saint Martin Island, Bangladesh.

Uncontrolled human activity and nature are causing the deterioration of Saint Martin Island, Bangladesh's only tropical island, necessitating sustainable land use strategies and ecological practices. Therefore, the present study measures the land use/cover transition from 1974 to 2021, predicts 2032 and 2042, and constructs the spatiotemporal features of the Landscape Ecological Risk Index based on land use changes. The study utilized Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) on Landsat images from 1974, 1988, 2001, 2013, and Sentinel 2B in 2021, achieving ≥ 80% accuracy. The MLP-MC approach was also used to predict 2032 and 2042 LULC change patterns. The eco-risk index was developed using landscape disturbance and vulnerability indices, Bayesian Kriging interpolation, and spatial autocorrelations to indicate spatial clustering. The research found that settlements increased from 2.06 to 28.62ha between 1974 and 2021 and would cover 41.22ha in 2042, causing considerable losses in agricultural areas, waterbodies, sand, coral reefs, and vegetation. The area under study showed a more uniform and homogenous environment as Shannon's diversity and evenness scores decreased. The ecological risk of Saint Martin Island increased from 4.31 to 31.05ha between 1974 and 2042 due to natural and human factors like erosion, tidal bores, population growth, coral mining, habitat destruction, and intensive agricultural practices and tourism, primarily in Nazrul Para, Galachipa, and Western Dakhin Para. The findings will benefit St. Martin Island stakeholders and policymakers by providing insights into current and potential landscape changes and land eco-management.

The Environmental Legal Framework of Mexican Caribbean Dunes: A Retrospective Case Study of Vegetation and Coastal Dune Loss in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve

The Mexican Caribbean coastal dune is protected by national and international environmental legislation. However, through permits, concessions and authorizations for changes in land use, the coastal dune has been fragmented or suppressed, mainly for touristic activities, causing a decline in protective and ecological ecosystem services. In this study, we evaluated the strength and weakness of Mexican legislation to protect the Caribbean coastal dune ecosystem and estimated the historical and current effects on coastal dune vegetation and dune geomorphology, associated with legal allowances of land use change in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve (SKBR). Legislation at the federal, state and local level were critically reviewed, and with remote sensing techniques and the Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS), we conducted a case study in the SKBR to estimate coastal dune vegetation alteration trends during the period 2011–2020 and modifications on the dune geomorphology associated with land use change allowances. At the federal (four laws), state (eight laws) and local (nine Local and Territorial Planning Programs (POEL and POET) levels, we found a lack of consensus and alignment between regulations, starting with a lack of definition of ecosystems subject to protection. For coastal dunes, none of them consider topography, ecological function and a way to identify it in the field, making the surveillance highly complex and favoring land use changes, the removal of vegetation and dune geomorphology alteration. Remote sensing techniques showed that areas with land use authorizations exhibit negative vegetation cover trends (Mann–Kendall <−0.4), indicating a decline in vegetation cover density that is mostly anthropogenically induced. The RPAS analysis demonstrated drastic alterations to complete elimination of the coastal dune geomorphology in areas with land use change. In the Mexican Caribbean, the loss of coastal dune and associated ecosystem by the lack of congruent legislation threatens the environmental stability of the coastal areas.