Various Types Of Electrolytes Research Articles

Investigation of the influence of different types of electrolytes on the performance of the Electrochemical Discharge Machining process during micromachining of molybdenum

Electrochemical Discharge Machining (ECDM) is a hybrid process that integrates the principles of Electrochemical Machining (ECM) and Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) to create micro-holes in both conductive and non-conductive materials that are typically difficult to machine. Given the unpredictable nature of this hybrid method, the composition of the electrolyte emerges as a critical factor influencing the accuracy and performance of the machining process. Consequently, the optimization and analysis of electrolytes are pivotal for the efficient utilization of energy during ECDM and for ensuring machining precision. This study aims to experimentally investigate the impact of various types of electrolytes and their concentrations. These are divided into two categories: neutral solutions, which include sodium nitrate (NaNO₃) and sodium chloride (NaCl), and alkaline solutions, comprising sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), as well as a mixture of both NaOH and KOH. The evaluation metrics considered include the Material Removal Rate (MRR), Tool Wear Rate (TWR), overcut (OC), Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and surface quality. It was observed that alkaline solutions, particularly the mixed electrolyte, resulted in higher MRR and HAZ, reduced TWR, and the production of micro-holes with minimized overcut compared to using KOH and NaOH separately or neutral solutions, while also enhancing surface quality. Further analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images and Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) of the brass tools used with different electrolytes revealed that tools used in KOH and mixed electrolytes exhibited less wear and material erosion compared to those used in NaOH and neutral solutions.

Wet spinning of chitin nanowhiskers: Effects of electrolyte composition in coagulation baths on mechanical properties and nanowhisker orientation

AbstractFibers composed solely of chitin nanowhiskers (ChNWs) with extreme uniaxial orientation can be successfully wet‐spun into coagulation baths containing 70% ethanol and various types of electrolytes (LiCl, HCl, NaCl, and MgSO4) with ionic strengths (J) of 0.075–0.3. The obtained fibers exhibited high ChNW orientation with degrees of orientation (S) ranging from 0.77 to 0.96. Fibers produced using NaCl‐containing coagulation baths contained residual NaCl crystals that were subsequently removed by rinsing. In contrast, LiCl and MgSO4, which originated from the corresponding baths and similarly remained within the fibers, did not crystallize due to hygroscopic deliquescence and the adaptation of SO42− ions for potential ionic crosslinking, respectively. Spinning with LiCl‐containing baths yielded fibers with maximum Young's modulus, stress at break, and strain at break of 7.9 ± 0.6 GPa, 58.8 MPa, and 1.13%, respectively. These mechanical properties of the unwashed fibers improved with J, while washing out the residual electrolytes and subsequent drying led to a decrease in the Young's modulus and an increase in the stress at break and strain at break. An increase in S was observed only in the fibers obtained using baths with J ≥ 0.3.

(Invited) Molecular Imaging of the Local Solvation, Nucleation and Growth Processes at Electrode-Electrolyte Interfaces

Electrochemical energy storage is a complex process that requires the synergistic participation of electrodes, electrolytes, and separators in the system. However, the key energy storage functions usually depend critically on the electrode-electrolyte interfaces, which include both the electrode surface and the electrical double layers (EDLs). Here I will discuss our efforts on developing and using electrochemical 3D atomic force microscopy (EC-3D-AFM) to simultaneously image the electrode and EDLs under operando conditions, with atomic-scale resolution. We study the interface between graphite electrode and various types of electrolytes. We observe rich EDL reconfiguration effects at different electrode potentials, which we find to be directly responsible for the capacitive charge storage functions. As the electrode potential goes beyond the electrochemical stability window of the electrolyte, we observe nucleation and growth processes where the EDLs and the deposited solid clusters exhibit intertwined structures. Such initial stage of electrode processes is likely connected to the long-term cycling behaviors of batteries.

NiII and CuII coordination polymers as anode materials and their compatibility with different electrolytes in Li-ion batteries

The effect of various types of electrolytes on the operation of coordination polymers based on NiII or CuII in lithium-ion batteries has been examined. Cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic cycling and quantum chemical modeling have been used to study the processes of lithiation and delithiation. It was shown that the use of a new electrolyte based on a mixture of 1 M LiN(CF3SO2)2 in 1,3-dioxolane–1,2-dimethoxyethane and 1 M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate–dimethyl carbonate improved battery performance, while cycling in the range of 0.2–2.5 V increased the discharge capacity up to 177–188 mA h g−1 and stabilized the charge–discharge processes.

Lithium‐based batteries, history, current status, challenges, and future perspectives

AbstractCurrently, the main drivers for developing Li‐ion batteries for efficient energy applications include energy density, cost, calendar life, and safety. The high energy/capacity anodes and cathodes needed for these applications are hindered by challenges like: (1) aging and degradation; (2) improved safety; (3) material costs, and (4) recyclability. The present review begins by summarising the progress made from early Li‐metal anode‐based batteries to current commercial Li‐ion batteries. Then discusses the recent progress made in studying and developing various types of novel materials for both anode and cathode electrodes, as well the various types of electrolytes and separator materials developed specifically for Li‐ion battery operation. Battery management, handling, and safety are also discussed at length. Also, as a consequence of the exponential growth in the production of Li‐ion batteries over the last 10 years, the review identifies the challenge of dealing with the ever‐increasing quantities of spent batteries. The review further identifies the economic value of metals like Co and Ni contained within the batteries and the extremely large numbers of batteries produced to date and the extremely large volumes that are expected to be manufactured in the next 10 years. Thus, highlighting the need to develop effective recycling strategies to reduce the levels of mining for raw materials and prevention of harmful products from entering the environment through landfill disposal.

Nontraditional Approaches To Enable High-Energy and Long-Life Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

ConspectusLithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are promising for automotive applications due to their high theoretical energy density (2600 Wh/kg). In addition, the natural abundance of sulfur could mitigate the global raw material supply chain challenge of commercial lithium-ion batteries that use critical elements, such as nickel and cobalt. However, due to persistent polysulfide shuttling and uncontrolled lithium dendrite growth, Li-S batteries using nonencapsulated sulfur cathodes and conventional ether-based electrolytes suffer from rapid cell degradation upon cycling. Despite significant improvements in recent decades, there is still a big gap between lab research and commercialization of the technology. To date, the reported cell energy densities and cycling life of practical Li-S pouch cells remain largely unsatisfactory.Traditional approaches to improving Li-S performance are primarily focused on confining polysulfides using electronically conductive hosts. However, these micro- and mesoporous hosts suffer from limited pore volume to accommodate high sulfur loading and the associated volume change during cycling. Moreover, they fail to balance adsorption-conversion of polysulfides during charge-discharge, leading to the formation of massive dead sulfur. Such hosts are themselves electrochemically inactive, which decreases the practical energy density. In contrast, a series of nontraditional approaches, paired with advances in multiscale mechanistic understanding, have recently demonstrated exciting performance outcomes not only in conventional coin cells but also in practical pouch cells.In this Account, we first introduce our novel cathode design strategies to overcome polysulfide shuttling and sluggish redox kinetics in thick S cathodes via selenium-sulfur chemistry and cathode host engineering. Next, we gain a mechanistic understanding of Li-S batteries in various types of electrolytes via a series of spectroscopic, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electrochemical methods. Meanwhile, a novel cathode solid electrolyte interphase encapsulation strategy via nonviscous highly fluorinated ether-based electrolyte is introduced. The established selection rule by investigating how solvating power retards the shuttle effect and induces robust cathode/solid-electrolyte interphase formation is also included. We then discuss how the synergistic interactions between rational cathode structures and electrolytes can be exploited to tailor the reaction pathways and kinetics of S cathodes under high mass loading and lean electrolyte conditions. In addition, a novel interlayer design to simultaneously overcome degradation processes (polysulfide shuttling and lithium dendrite formation) and accelerate redox reaction kinetics is presented. Finally, this Account concludes with an overview of the challenges and strategies to develop Li-S pouch cells with high practical energy density, long cycle life, and fast-charging capability.

Why electrochemical capacitor electrolytes should not be ignored?

Technological advances in various fields are frequently hampered by the insufficient capacity of energy storage devices. Electrochemical capacitors (ECs) emerge as high-power effective energy storage devices with a short charge/discharge time, long-term cycle life, and wide temperature range. The electrolyte is an important component influencing EC performance because of its physical and chemical properties. There are various types of electrolytes including organic, ionic liquids, water in salt and redox active electrolytes which offer diverse behavior to the ECs. Liquid state electrolyte as well as solid-state systems are described. This review emphasizes the significance of the electrolyte type and its influence on the EC performance. Different aspects are discussed starting from the specific ion effect at the electrode/electrolyte interface that affects the EC charge/discharge mechanism. Furthermore, emerging electrolytes and new directions in ECs are highlighted. Herein, the progress and challenges in water in salt (WIS) and deep eutectic solvent (DES) electrolytes are presented. Moreover, a discussion on the redox-active electrolyte for hybrid capacitors is carried out. ECs electrolytes are governing the crucial metrics of the device like the voltage window, the energy and power density as well as the long-term cyclability. Hence, as “a rule of thumb” the EC electrolyte should not be ignored.

Solid-State Electrolytes for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Challenges, Progress, and Strategies.

Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs) represent a promising next-generation energy storage system, with advantages such as high specific capacity (1675 mAh g−1), abundant resources, low price, and ecological friendliness. During the application of liquid electrolytes, the flammability of organic electrolytes, and the dissolution/shuttle of polysulfide seriously damage the safety and the cycle life of lithium–sulfur batteries. Replacing a liquid electrolyte with a solid one is a good solution, while the higher mechanical strength of solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) has an inhibitory effect on the growth of lithium dendrites. However, the lower ionic conductivity, poor interfacial contact, and relatively narrow electrochemical window of solid-state electrolytes limit the commercialization of solid-state lithium–sulfur batteries (SSLSBs). This review describes the research progress in LSBs and the challenges faced by SSEs, which are classified as polymer electrolytes, inorganic solid electrolytes, and composite electrolytes. The advantages, as well as the disadvantages of various types of electrolytes, the common coping strategies to improve performance, and future development trends, are systematically described.

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on a New Type of Non-Volatile Co(II)/Co(III) Electrolyte Delivering Higher Power Conversion Efficiency for Indoor Applications

Background: Electrolyte is an essential constituent of a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) as it mediates charge transport and regenerates the oxidized dye. Iodide/triiodide (I-/I3-) based electrolytes are the ones widely being used in DSSCs. These types of electrolytes are usually made by dissolving high concentrations of triiodide and polyiodide species in solvents, such as acetonitrile and methoxypropionitrile. These solvents face evaporation issues and lead to stability problems, which reduces the life span of the DSSC. For solving these issues, various types of electrolytes, such as ionic liquids and gelated liquid electrolytes, have been used to replace conventional volatile electrolytes. Objective: To solve the solvent evaporation issue and the electrical resistance rise, we aim to synthesis a non-volatile electrolyte with excellent open-circuit voltage and stability. Method: A new genre of nonvolatile Co(II)/Co(III) redox electrolyte was synthesized by the reaction of tris(2-(1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridine)cobalt(II) and tris(2-(1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridine) cobalt(III) with 2,4,6-tris(dodecyloxy)benzaldehyde. As a proof-of-principle experiment, a DSSC was fabricated using the as-synthesized electrolyte, N-719 dye as the light harvester, and TiO2 as the photoanode, and their performances were analyzed in room light conditions. Results: The DSSCs deliver a remarkable power conversion efficiency of 22.1%, an open circuit voltage of 1 V, and a power output of 88.5 μW cm–2 at 1000 lux, under illumination from a Deltron LED light. Conclusion: Cobalt-based non-volatile electrolytes are efficient candidates that can replace the conventional volatile electrolytes in DSSCs. Further research into this new type of electrolyte could pave ways to deliver high open-circuit voltage as well as good current density with high stability.

Streaming Potential Coefficient Measurements in Porous Rocks Saturated by Divalent Electrolytes

Streaming potential in a water-rock system is generated by the relative motion between water and solid surfaces and is directly related to the existence of an electric double layer between water and solid grain surfaces of porous media. The streaming potential measurements have great potential in geophysical applications. Most porous rocks are filled by ground water containing various types of electrolytes. Therefore, it is important to understand the variation of the streaming potential with types of electrolytes for specific rocks. In this work, we have carried out streaming potential measurements for three consolidated rocks saturated by three divalent electrolytes at different electrolyte concentrations. The experimental result shows that the streaming potential coefficient in magnitude of all samples decreases with increasing electrolyte concentration. Additionally, an empirical relation between the streaming potential coefficient and the electrolyte concentration is obtained and it has a similar form to those available in literature for monovalent electrolytes.

Ga-doped lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide electrolyte for solid-state Li batteries

Cubic-phase Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) garnet is a promising solid electrolyte candidate for next-generation Li batteries. As a viable approach, the desired cubic-phase formation of LLZO relies on elemental doping. In this regard, various dopants such as Al and Ga are doped into the LLZO samples, which are synthesized using a solid-state reaction method. The Al- and Ga-doped LLZO can transform to a cubic-phase garnet at 900 °C. After 1200 °C sintering, a Li2ZrO3 impurity phase is found for the Al-doped LLZO pellet, which still shows many voids and inhomogeneous particles on the surface. The Ga doping seems to be attractive since it can effectively stabilize the cubic phase and desired microstructure within 900–1200 °C. Based on the optimized Ga-doped LLZO (LGLZO), various electrolyte architecture designs are developed that include LGLZO pellet electrolytes with and without poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI)-LGLZO coating, and hybrid electrolyte layers of PEO-LiTFSI, PEO-LGLZO, and PEO-LiTFSI-LGLZO composites. Li//LiFePO4 (LFP) cells with various types of electrolytes are assembled, and their charge-discharge properties are investigated. The all-solid-state Li//PEO-LiTFSI-LGLZO//LFP cell exhibits satisfactory charge storage performance, which has revealed potential for practical applications.

The Use of Hybrid Energy Storage Devices for Balancing the Electricity Load Profile of Enterprises

In this article, the authors consider the possibility of using a hybrid energy storage system to even out the load profile of the enterprise. Solving the problem of rational use of energy storage taking into account the initial variable load schedule will significantly reduce not only the cost of electricity consumption by the enterprise, but also the costs of its production. Detailed characteristics of batteries with various types of electrolytes and supercapacitors are given. A model of the active scheme of a hybrid electric energy storage system consisting of a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor unit with the corresponding characteristics is presented. The model was carried out by using the SimPowerSystems software in MatLab. During the simulation, the temperature and the aging effects and of the batteries were not taken into account. The selfdischarge parameter of the battery was also not presented. As a result of the simulation, discharge characteristics of supercapacitors and batteries were obtained based upon which the expediency of their combined use for leveling load profiles of various types was substantiated. The paper presents the results of the simulation of operating modes of a hybrid energy storage device, combining the advantages of two types of energy storage devices, as well as a diagram of delivered power to the network, corresponding to the specified parameters. The paper provides a mathematical description of the increasing power by hybrid storage system resulting from the combined use of supercapacitors and batteries. The paper presents the dependence of the power increase ratio on the frequency and the pulse current duty ratio, which proves that the maximum possible output power of the hybrid storage system can be several times greater than the power of a single battery having the same parameters.

Comparative Study on the Structural Degradation and Thermal Stability of LixNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode Materials in Liquid and Solid Electrolyte Systems

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) using organic liquid electrolytes have been applied in portable devices such as laptops and cellular phones owing to its wide electrochemical stability, high voltages, and excellent energy density. LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (NCM523) cathode have attracted significant interest as the cathode materials for LIBs owing to their high capacity, excellent rate capability and low cost. NCM523 cathode materials have a disadvantage of structural instability, which caused by the reduction of Ni ions releases oxygen from the crystal structure at the high temeprature or high charged state, which can lead thermal runaway by reacting with the flammable electrolyte. The use of organic liquid electrolytes in LIBs raises safety issues due to its flammable character and the impact on the explosion is greater in particular for relatively large systems such as electrical vehicles and grid storage. To overcome the safety issues, solid state batteries (SSBs) using a non-combustible solid state Li-ion conductor are regarded as the realistic alternative to prohibit the leakage of liquid electrolytes and the resultant fire hazards. However, due to the large resistance in the electrode-electrolyte interface, the capacity retention and cycle effieciency of the SSBs become worse. Previous studies on SSBs have been mainly focused on developing solid state electrolytes with high ion conductivity. Despite growing interest in stability, the systematic studies of safety of SSBs depending on the type of electrolyte has never been evaluated so far. It is necessary for understanding structural deformations on the cathode material in the effects of the reactions beween the electrode and various types of electrolytes, which is essential for ensuring the safety of the batteries. In this study, we investigate the structural degradation and thermal stability on NCM523 cathode materials by taking an advantage of in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in various electrolyte conditions, including conventional liquid electrolyte, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) complexes with LiClO4 (PEO-based solid electrolyte), and PEO/LiClO4/Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3 (LATP) composite electrolyte (PEO-inorganic composite electrolyte). Since the LATP oxide electrolyte has brittleness and the PEO has flexibility, it adopts a composite electrolyte having inorganic and organic phases with good interface contact with the cell electrode. A cell composed of each electrolyte was prepared and charged with cut-off voltages of 3.9 V and 4.3 V at a rate of 0.05 C after the second formation process for stabilzing the cell. The capacity at the same cut-off voltage decreases in the order of conventional liquid electrolyte, PEO-based solid electrolyte, and PEO-inorganic composite electrolytes. To understand the thermal stability and the degradation mechanism, modifications in selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) and electron energy-loss (EEL) spectra of oxygen K-edge and transition metal (Ni, Co, Mn) L-edges of each of charged NCM523 cathode materials are monitored in real time at the range from room temperature to 300°C. Our work demonstrated that contact resistance at the interface between the electrode and electrolyte is important factor. This work provides important information on the relationship with structural deformation and thermal stability of the cathode materials, which is an essential part of the rational design to develope for high engergy densities and safe SSBs. All the details will be available at the meeting. Acknowledgement This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Institutional Program (Project 2E28142). This work was also supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant (No. 2018R1A2B2005205).

Polyviologen as a high energy density cathode in magnesium-ion batteries

Poly(hexyl viologen dichloride) (PHV-Cl) is described as a high energy density (ED) material in magnesium-based electrolytes. When coupled with Mg metal in all phenyl complex (APC) electrolytes, PHV-Cl cathodes demonstrate anion-transport behaviors with the reduction/oxidation of viologen units. This dual-ion type cell delivers a relatively high ED with reasonable stability during repeated charge/discharge (C/D) when compared with previously reported inorganic/organic cathodes in magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs). PHV-Cl shows a capacity of 171 mAh g−1 at an average discharge potential of 1.33 V vs. Mg/Mg2+, resulting in a significantly high ED (227 mWh g−1). The high ED characteristics of PHV-Cl are retained during repeated C/D cycles (201 mWh g−1 after 50 C/D) in contrast to the relative instability of other previously reported organic cathodes. Herein, the electrochemical performance of PHV-Cl in various types of electrolytes is also described. This work suggests that viologen-based cathodes with anion-transport properties could be implemented to achieve high levels of ED and stability via a dual-ion mode in MIBs, particularly with currently available electrolytes that are compatible with magnesium metal.

Comparison of electrochemical performance for zinc anode via various electrolytes and conducting agents in Zn-air secondary batteries

Zn-air batteries have many advantages as energy devices but they show a poor charge-discharge cycle performance. Therefore, this study examined the effects of various types of electrolytes and conducting agents and changed the additive contents to optimize the electrochemical performance of Zn-air secondary batteries. Electrolytes, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) solutions, and conducting agents, such as super-p, denka black, acetylene black, and ketjen black, were used to increase the electric conductivity. The electrochemical performance of the zinc anode was evaluated from charge-discharge capacities and cycle efficiency. When the capacity was compared according to each electrolyte from one to ten cycles, in contrast, the zinc anode in 6 M KOH showed a higher discharge capacity in the first cycle. Therefore, zinc anode was composed in the 6-M KOH electrolyte and conducting agents were added. The zinc anode included conducting agents with a higher cycle capacity than those without conducting agents, and super-p had a higher first discharge capacity than the others. Therefore, the zinc anode with super-p of 4% shows the highest performance using 6 M KOH in Zn-air secondary batteries.

A Preferable Method for the Formation of Vesicles from Lamellar Liquid Crystals Using Chemical Additives.

We present a method for vesicle formation from lamellar liquid crystals (LCs) using a cationic amphiphilic substance, namely 2-hydroxyethyl di(alkanol)oxyethyl methylammonium methylsulfate (DEAE). Vesicle formation from the DEAE lamellar dispersion occurred via a two-step chemical addition. This method required neither additional mechanical energy nor the use of special solvents. The transition was solubilized using an organic substance (e.g., limonene) in the lamellar DEAE LC, after which, a small amount of inorganic salt was added to the solubilized lamellar LC dispersion with gentle stirring. The viscosity of the DEAE dispersion following salt addition decreased sharply from 105 mPa·s to 102 mPa·s, and the DEAE dispersion was converted into a high fluidity liquid. Several organic substances were examined as potential solubilizates to initiate the lamellar-vesicle transition. Inorganic salts were also examined as transition triggers using various types of electrolytes; only neutral salts were effective as trigger additives. Dissociation of inorganic salts yielded anions, which inserted between the DEAE bilayer membranes and induced OH- ion exchange. In addition, a number of cations simultaneously formed ion pairs with the DEAE counter ions (CH3SO4- ions). However, as the amount of solubilized organic substances in the DEAE bilayer membrane decreased over time, the vesicles were transformed into lamellar LCs once again. The DEAE states in each step were measured by monitoring the zeta potential, pH, viscosity, and by examination of scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy images. A possible molecular mechanism for the lamellar-vesicle transition of DEAE was proposed.

Electrochemical pore etching in germanium

Abstract Nucleation and growth of electrochemically etched pores in Germanium (Ge) was investigated for n- and p-type Ge single crystals with {1 0 0}, {1 1 0}, and {1 1 1} orientations and doping concentrations of (10 14 –10 18 ) cm −3 . Various types of electrolytes, illumination conditions (front side, back side or none), and pre-treatments for optimizing nucleation were used. Several kinds of macropores could be obtained, mostly for the first time. In particular, pores could be obtained in p-type Ge samples. Pore geometries, morphologies, and growth peculiarities were found to be quite different from other semiconductors. Nucleation is generally difficult, the preferred growth direction is 〈1 0 0〉 or 〈1 1 1〉, stop planes are of {1 1 0} type, and there is always a strong electropolishing component compromising pore geometry and stability. Porous membranes have been produced showing electrocapillarity effects.

Titania membranes for liquid phase separation: effect of surface charge on flux

Titania membranes were prepared by sol-gel processes. Molecular weight cut-offs (MWCO) were successfully controlled in the range from 500 to 1000 with pure water permeabilities of 0.6–1.5×10−11 m3 m−2 s−1 Pa−1. Nanofiltration experiments were carried out for various types of electrolytes (NaCl, Na2SO4, MgCl2, MgSO4) using several membranes having different MWCOs (400, 500, >1000). Rejection showed the minimum values near the isoelectric point (IEP) which were determined by streaming potential measurements. Larger rejections were obtained for the case where electrolytes having divalent co-ions were nanofiltrated, while low rejection were observed for the case of electrolytes having divalent counterions. On the other hand, permeate volume fluxes were maximized near IEP and the fluxes were almost the same irrespective of types of electrolytes. However, permeate volume fluxes decreased at pH higher than IEP. The dependency was pronounced for the case of divalent counterions and smaller pore diameters, probably because of larger hydrodynamic resistance by ionically-adsorbed counter ions.

In Situ Conductivity of Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) Electrosynthesized in Aqueous Solutions in the Presence of Large Anions

AbstractThick poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) films incorporating various anion dopants were anodically deposited from aqueous solutions. In situ AC conductometry was applied during the electropolymerisation and the conductivity values obtained in different electrolyte systems were compared. The results indicate that 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene can be polymerised also from relatively dilute aqueous solutions containing various types of electrolytes and that the most conducting films are obtained using large organic anions.

Complex equilibria, solvation and solubility

Abstract