Language Variation Research Articles

Exploring Tonal Variation Using Dialect Tonometry

Most research on dialectometry so far primarily focuses on European languages. Within these studies, analyses on the phonetic level predominantly focus on segments. A lack of studies on languages outside of Europe means that the variation in many lesser-studied languages, including tonal languages, is largely unknown. Tonal languages are languages which pitch is used as an indication in the lexical realisations in (at least some) morphemes, and over half of the world’s languages include lexical tones. Despite tones being the inseparable and unneglectable part of the majority of the world’s languages, there is only a handful of quantitative dialectometric studies on the dialectal variation in tonal languages. In this paper, we explore the phonetic and phonological variations in Yue, a lesser-studied tonal language spoken by around 80 million people in Southern China. Using a newly devised tone representation (modified Onset–Contour–Offset) combined with the Levenshtein distance, we explore the patterns of dialectal variation on the tonal level, as well as to what extent tonal variation correlates with segmental variation. Our results show that tones behave rather differently from segments, and thus, we illustrate that studying lesser-studied and tonal languages can contribute immensely to the study of dialect variation in general.

Nekaj teoretskih izhodišč pri proučevanju jezikovne variantnosti

The article addresses selected theoretical issues in the study of language variation and change, aiming to contribute to the reflection on researching and describing the variation of spoken Slovene. In the first part, it highlights certain terminological dilemmas and key points in the treatment of this field in Slovene linguistics and justifies the use of the term "variety". Furthermore, it addresses criteria for defining varieties: homogeneity and covariance, cognitive boundaries and emic category status, and idiovarietary features. It also examines the vertical stratification between dialects and standard language and describes European models of variety constellations, as defined by the German linguist Peter Auer in his seminal article from 2005.

Enhancing EFL Education: The Role of Metadiscourse in Language Assessment

This study was motivated by students' low ability to write and communicate effectively in English. This study aims to analyze the effect of metadiscourse on language assessment in the context of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) education. This study is a qualitative research. The subjects involved in the study were students learning English as a foreign language. The data collection method was through a robust literature review to establish basic knowledge of metadiscourse and its significance in language assessment. The review also included important works on metadiscourse language evaluation theory and research investigating the relationship between metadiscourse and language skills proficiency. Using a comparative perspective, the analysis of data from language assessment utilizes pass-linguistic and pass-cultural insights to complement the knowledge of metadiscourse in EFL education. By analyzing how metadiscourse operates in specific languages and cultural contexts, the researchers found widespread patterns in addition to particular language variations in the use of metadiscourse. The results showed that metadiscourse plays an important role in shaping students' language skills ability, discourse competence, and universal communicative effectiveness. In conclusion, integrating metadiscourse in language evaluation provides great hope for improving EFL training and promoting stronger language consequences.

The Impact of Social Media Usage Among Teenagers on the Indonesian Language in The Digital Era

Social media, with its advantages and disadvantages, has had a significant impact on the use of the Indonesian language, particularly among teenagers. Social media has shaped and transformed the way society communicates in Indonesian in daily life. The method used to analyze this issue is qualitative descriptive. Data collection techniques include screenshots to capture language usage phenomena on social media platforms such as WhatsApp, Instagram, TikTok, and Twitter (X), along with note-taking and documentation techniques. The research findings show that teenagers on social media employ linguistic aspects such as code-mixing, the use of informal language, phonetic reduplication and spelling variations, the use of acronyms and abbreviations, as well as emotional markers and symbols. The impact of social media on the Indonesian language includes vocabulary enrichment, degradation of language structure, maintenance of social and group identities, shifts in communication styles, and influences on the sustainability of standard language. Efforts to preserve the Indonesian language can be made through the government's role in drafting policies and regulations that support language preservation in the digital era, educational institutions by adjusting the Indonesian language curriculum to the times, active societal campaigns promoting proper Indonesian usage on social media, and individual awareness and responsibility for using correct Indonesian in social media communication.

South African English: social and linguistic aspects

The research work is devoted to the analysis of the English language variability specific characteristics in the context of modern community globalization process. The research proves that the English language variant, adapting to the realities of local languages and cultures, acquires new sociolinguistic properties. The aim of the study is to identify the specifics of such a variant of the English language as the South African English which was formed during the contact interaction of the British English language and the autochthonous languages and cultures of South Africa. The key properties of the South African English are revealed on the basis of methods groups: analysis and synthesis; comparative analysis; and the method of component analysis. The key attention is paid to the historical process formation of South African English and to the development of the English language and its role in the life of South Africa. The complex nature of long-term historical inter language and intercultural interaction has led to the formation of a heterogeneous structure of South African society, is which is presented by Europeans, numerous local peoples, Indians and their descendants living on the same territory. The complex differentiation of South African society has defined a unique variety of languages, dialects, and sociolects, among which English has a special social prestige and unites all other languages. Having a multicomponent structure, sociolinguistic differentiation of South African society contributed to the emergence and functioning a series of South African English variants types in one territory. These types are: Black South African English, White South African English, Coloured South African English. The English language of each sociolinguistic group has unique features that manifest themselves to a greater extent at the phonetic level.

Dynamic Linguistics

Abstract As opposed to static approaches, the dynamic approach (DA) emphatically distances itself from the routinised use of the concept of language (as in the English, French or Quechua language), the sole reliance on the dichotomised model of language history explained by vertical change (the Stammbaum approach) and horizontal change (the contact approach), and the eccentrification of creole language emergence. The notion of a DA to language surfaced at several points in time, reaching two climaxes, namely the advent of Wave Theory (Schmidt 1872) and the incorporation of variation in the machinery of a modular approach to grammar (Bailey 1973; Bickerton 1971; Seuren 1982). In a nutshell, the DA advocates for the polylectal nature of linguistic competence (in the transformationalist/generative semantic sense), the fluid nature of language variation over time and space, as well as for the notions of functionality and the Principle of Semantic Transparency as guiding forces throughout the history of languoids.1 In this article, the basic tenets of this approach are outlined, embedded in a historical frame within the advent of Generative Semantics and variation-centred approaches to language. These tenets are illustrated with case studies from languoids used in Northwestern Amazonia, Balgo in Western Australia, as well as Senegambia in West Africa.

Influence of topic-prominent L1s on the use of L2 English copula be: a corpus-based study

Abstract This study explores the influence of first language (L1) on the acquisition of second language (L2) English, specifically examining the use of copula be as a topic marker. Although prior research suggests that L1 transfer may impact L2 acquisition of copula be, the evidence remains inconclusive. To address this issue, the study analyzes the use of be in L2 English spoken by learners with topic-prominent L1s (viz., Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and those with non-topic-prominent L1s (viz., Filipino). Using the ICNALE corpus, the study investigates whether L1 topic-prominence affects the use of be in L2 English. The findings reveal that L2-English learners with topic-prominent L1s use copula be more often with definite NPs than those with non-topic-prominent L1s, indicating the influence of L1 topic-prominence properties on the use of copula be. Additionally, learners from topic-prominent L1s more frequently produce nontargetlike topic-comment structures using be verb (e.g., restaurant is many people eat their foods). Based on these findings, the study discusses the implication of L1 transfer effects in L2 acquisition and emphasizes the importance of a more global and refined understanding of language variation in L2 teaching and learning.

Genetic and linguistic comparisons reveal complex sex-biased transmission of language features.

The history of people's movements and interactions shapes both genetic and linguistic variation. Genes and languages are transmitted separately and their distributions reflect different aspects of human history, but some demographic processes can cause them to be similarly distributed. In particular, forms of societal organization, including movements in and out of a community, may have shaped the transmission of both genes and languages. If children were more likely to learn their mother's language than their father's when their parents were from populations that spoke different languages or dialects, then language variation might show a closer association with maternally transmitted genetic markers than autosomal ones; this association could be further reinforced if children reside with predominantly maternal kin. We analyze the worldwide relationship between linguistic and genomic variation, leveraging the sex-biased transmission of X chromosomes to assess whether language has tended to be preferentially transmitted along the male or female line. In addition, we measure the effects of postmarital residence with female kin, matrilineal descent, and endogamy on the covariation of mitochondrial DNA and languages, using mtDNA because genomic data were available for very few populations with these ethnographic traits. We find that while there is little evidence for a consistent or widespread sex bias in the transmission of language, such biased transmission may have occurred locally in several parts of the world and might have been influenced by population-level ethnographic characteristics, such as female-based descent or residence patterns. Our results highlight the complex relationships between genes, language, ethnography, and geography.

The Typological Position of The Languages of Nepal: Morphosyntax

We examine the typological position of the languages of Nepal among the languages of the world, considering a broad sample of morphosyntactic features. Following a computational analysis, we find that: most of the languages of Nepal occupy a fringe position; some languages of Nepal lie outside the range of variation of other South Asian languages; and the languages of Nepal show correlations among morphosyntactic features that are not correlated globally.

Crafting with AI: personalized pathways to boost critical language awareness and spark creativity in writing through digital adaptive learning

This study employed an embedded correlational mixed-method app­roach to examine the effectiveness of automated writing application equipped with adaptive learning (AL) strategy in enhancing the writing skills, critical language awareness (CLA), and creativity of L2 learners. The study included 80 intermediate-level participants who were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (using an AL application) or a control group (using a technology-enhanced non-AL application). Data were gathered through writing tasks, CLA and creativity questionnaires, and semistructured interviews. Quantitative data revealed that using AL strategy significantly improved writing outcomes compared to non-AL application. AL strategy offered individualized instruction, immediate feedback, and focused practice, resulting in enhanced accuracy and language proficiency. It also positively influenced CLA by providing language analysis, exposure to language variation, and discourse analysis techniques. Additionally, AL strategy promoted learners’ creativity through targeted practice, an error-tolerant environment, and personalized learning paths. Qualitative data confirmed the quantitative findings, with participants in the experimental group affirming the positive effects of AL applications on writing proficiency, CLA, and creativity. The study highlights the benefits of AL strategy and offers pedagogical implications for integrating AL features in language learning contexts.

Abstract Su1106: Evaluating Culturally Competent Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) Training in Urban Minority Communities

Introduction: Timely resuscitation can triple the chance of survival for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients. Differences in bystander CPR rates between white and minority communities lead to significant racial and ethnic disparities in OHCA survival rates. Immigrant populations, in particular, face several educational barriers and are often excluded in community CPR trainings. Previous efforts have increased the inclusivity of CPR education for female and disabled citizens through targeted interventions. Significant opportunities exist to apply similar strategies and tackle community-level disparities. Aim: To examine the impact of culturally competent CPR instruction on confidence levels and acceptability of CPR skills among minority citizen groups. Methods: CPR cohorts were taught using a local emergency services syllabus. Through discussion with course site leaders, the syllabus was adapted in three categories: language variations, cultural adaptations, and/or consideration of cultural learning styles. A pre-post design was utilized to assess impact of culturally-tailored CPR training. Confidence and acceptability levels in performing CPR were measured using a digital survey. An unpaired t-test was used to analyze pre/post-course data. Trainings were held from November 2023 to May 2024. Results: All participants were 18 years or older (n=217). The response rate was 36.7% (n=80). Confidence levels increased by 121% for checking for breathing and responsiveness (p<0.0001), 63.9% for communicating with 911 (p<0.0001), 137% for administering chest compressions (p<0.0001), and 172% for connecting an AED (p<0.0001). CPR acceptability improved, with participants reporting a 47.8% reduction in perceived difficulty post-course (p<0.0001). Conclusions: Implementing culturally tailored CPR training significantly improved confidence in CPR skills and acceptability of CPR. Future experiments may compare outcomes between intervention and control CPR cohorts at more course sites.

Overview of Hong Kong English and China English

Hong Kong English and China English are two different forms of regional variants of English. This paper provides a systematic overview of Hong Kong English and China English and explores their language characteristics, historical background, sociocultural influences, similarities and differences. The study aims to shed light on the complex nature of language contact, adaptation and variation in these regions. By examining the unique characteristics of Hong Kong English and China English, this paper contributes to a deeper understanding of language variation and the complexity of English as a global language in different sociolinguistic contexts.

LANGUAGE OF TOTALITARIANISM: NATIONAL LINGUISTIC POLICY IN FASCIST ITALY AND MILITARIST JAPAN

When it comes to creating a notorious ideology, in the hands of those in power, language becomes a tool for consolidating a nation. Fascist Italy and militarist Japan are prime examples of the use of language as a means of uniting people in the name of proclaimed “new” values and ideals. In the present article the authors provide a detailed analysis of language policy in both countries: from the initial desire to unite the inhabitants of the country with the proclaimed order under the aegis of a single nation by means of language, to open hostility to any manifestations of heterogeneity, in particular to regional dialects or dialectal variants of the literary national language, to an open struggle against loan words, even those that had already been firmly established or consolidated in the domestic language. The study attempts to trace what changes happened to Italian and Japanese languages when intransigent parties had come to power with their ideologies; to analyze to what extent the language policies of Italy and Japan in the 1st half of the 20th century are similar and to what extent they differ; and we also summarise the results of such restrictive language policies after the World War II resulted in the said politicians’ defeat.

FRENCH ARGOTOLOGY IN RUSSIA IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 21st CENTURY

In the anniversary year of Eda Moiseevna Beregovskaya, it is important to note the continued interest in the study of both the features of social variability of the national language and the expressive capabilities of elements of a specific lexical continuum in literary and journalistic texts. The method of systematic description of French argotisms, which has no analogues in the world practice, proposed by the founder of the national school of argotology, has been repeatedly applied both to the characteristics of a certain sublanguage and to the comparative analysis of several social variants of the national language. Moreover, the scientific heritage of E.M. Beregovskaya contains an array of information on the development and testing of an algorithm for analyzing argotic units in the fabric of a literary text. The analysis allows the addressee to understand words of connivance in context and adequately assess the stylistic effect arising from their presence. The article also describes a convergent approach to the selection of areas of research (lexicological, linguostylistic, field research), which contributes to the inventory of linguistic facts and the identification of universal and specific features of the functioning of elements of argotic vocabulary. Special attention is paid to the followers of E.M. Beregovskaya, who implement individual projects for the study of substandard lexemes as part of the work of the International Research Laboratory of Orel State University named after I.S. Turgenev “Problems of Social and Territorial Heteroglossia”.

Language awareness survey among university students

In this study we examined the linguistic awareness and dialect attitudes of university students studying at the University of Nyíregyháza. It is particularly important that the future teachers have a positive attitude towards the varieties of the Hungarian language and share their knowledge with their learners in an effective way. However, the results of various research studies show that in many cases, mother tongue education in schools does not build on a multi-standard approach to language varieties, and as a consequence, non-standard varieties are perceived more negatively than standard ones. The aim of this research is to find out what the university students in the research study know about the regional variation of language, conscious language use and how they view dialect speech. The study was conducted through an online questionnaire survey involving 70 respondents. As a starting point for the research, it was assumed that the respondents’ dialect attitudes and language awareness would be determined by their experiences at school, and thus negative attitudes towards dialect speech would be observed in their value judgments. It was also assumed that respondents would be less accepting of the occurrence of dialect phenomena in their own language use and in the speech habits of others in their locality. The results showed that the majority of the students surveyed did not have a negative opinion of dialect phenomena, so the first hypothesis was not confirmed. However, the second hypothesis was partially confirmed, as far fewer respondents acknowledged the occurrence of dialect phenomena in their own language use than in the speech of the people in their locality. Overall, the majority of respondents to the survey have a positive attitude towards linguistic diversity and strive to use the language consciously. It is hoped that the students surveyed here will adopt the right approach to teaching about linguistic diversity in their teaching practice, thus positively influencing learners’ attitudes towards dialects and linguistic diversity.

Skunked Terms as Part of Language Evolvement

The present article focuses on the process of language change and more specifically the evolvement of word meaning through the so-called skunked words. The term was coined by Bryan A. Garner, a lexicographer who uses it to refer to words that have developed new meanings, which have become so controversial that they are best avoided in writing and speech due to the risk of being misunderstood. This phenomenon poses significant challenges for linguists, lexicographers, and language users alike. In this research, we observe skunked words through the lens of corpus linguistics, aiming to shed light on their elusive nature and the dynamics of their usage. By applying corpus linguistic techniques, based on Coca Corpus tools, we offer insights into the nuanced meanings and connotations of skunked words, highlighting their fluidity and susceptibility to semantic change over time. Furthermore, we discuss strategies for managing the usage of skunked words in discourse, emphasizing the importance of context factors and linguistic awareness. This study contributes to the growing body of research on language variation and change, providing a corpus linguistic analysis of skunked words. Our findings not only enhance our understanding of these linguistic phenomena but also offer practical guidance for foreign language learners striving for clarity and precision in communication.

Potential objects and transitivity variations: A comparable corpus-driven study of Mandarin Chinese Verb-Object compounds

This study proposes a new approach to the transitivity variation of the Mandarin Verb-Object (VO) compound by focusing on the role of the potential objects instead of the incorporated object. This new approach highlights the interactions between language change and variation. Previous approaches to the transitivity variation of VO compounds, especially Mandarin Chinese VO compounds, have typically focused on the purported blocking effect of the incorporated object (O). Recent corpus-driven studies, however, have attested that Mandarin VO compounds can take objects. This study compared clausal contexts in two Chinese varieties when VO compounds take direct objects and showed that the same noun phrase tends to require a context of higher transitivity to function as a direct object in the Mainland variety, complementing the previously established tendencies that Taiwan Verb-Object compounds have higher object-taking abilities. Both changes and variations can be interpreted as lexical constructionalization, supplemented with insights from noun incorporation and lexical diffusion. Argument advancement after compound formation represents lexical constructionalization, motivated by a tendency to encode transitivity with less compositionality. The contrasting contextual and lexical transitivity trends in the two varieties support the shifting encoding of transitivity generalization, illustrating different stages of lexical constructionalization.

The impact of language variation on educational outcomes in African rural settings

The present research discusses how language variation may influence educational outcomes within African rural settings concerning indigenous languages, colonial languages, and dialectal diversity. From the critical literature review, it has been determined that mother-tongue education advances academic performance as well as social cohesion and engagement since students find learning more accessible and relevant to their culture. Conversely, the range of dialects, along with other issues such as a lack of resources and proper teacher training, complicates the implementation of mother-tongue education. On the other hand, the use as medium of instruction of a few colonial languages causes inequalities to worsen, alienating rural learners and causing underachievement. This study has strengthened calls for more flexible and localized language policies, with further research on the longer-term impacts of indigenous language education in rural classrooms and the role of dialects. The resolution of at least these linguistic problems would allow the countries of Africa to come closer to equitable and more inclusive education systems. Keywords: Language Variation, Educational Outcomes, Rural Africa, Indigenous Languages, Colonial Languages, Dialectal Diversity.

How do Barbie and Ken speak? An analysis of the speech of the movie characters (in the Polish-language version)

The article investigates the language used by the movie characters Barbie and Ken in the film Barbie, directed by Greta Gerwig. The Polish dubbing version is the subject of analysis. The author posits that the language of film characters is a contributing factor in the formation of their respective stereotypes. In the case of Barbie and Ken, this is significant, since both characters are cultural icons, and their stereotypical image is well-known in many cultures. Consequently, they can be regarded as exemplifying a specific gender and social group, and the utterances in question can be viewed as a gender-dependent variant of language and a variant of language characteristic of one particular social group. Given the exaggerated nature of Barbie and Ken’s utterances, it is necessary to consider them as stylised. Furthermore, they leave considerable scope for interpretation. It could be argued that the film is a satire of the feminist movement and an indictment of an order based on male domination. Alternatively, it could be seen as a representation of the voices of women and men in the struggle for equal rights.

EXPLORING POLITENESS STRATEGIES IN ‘A WALK TO REMEMBER’ MOVIE: A SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH

The primary objective of this research is to determine the many types of politeness tactics and the prevalent ones in the film "A Walk to Remember". This analysis aims to explore how language variation, social factors, and politeness strategies are represented through the interactions of the main characters, Jamie Sullivan and Landon Carter. Politeness tactics are used to maintain social peace and reduce communication disputes. This study uses Brown and Levinson's (1987) approach to identify several types of politeness techniques. The characters' conversation from the film "A Walk to Remember" was utilized to collect the data. The data for this study were gathered by non-participant observation and note-taking approaches. The data for this investigation were examined using a classified approach. The film screenplay had 4 examples of positive politeness, 4 instances of negative politeness, 4 instances of off-record techniques, and 4 instances of bald-on-record strategies.