Variations In Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Interactions of socioecological factors on the supply demand balance of ecosystem services in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China

A comprehensive understanding of how socioecological factors influence multiple ecosystem services (ESs) may provide stakeholders with a management tool to coordinate economic development and environmental protection. However, previous studies have focused more on the supply side compared with the demand of ESs. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms for the changes in the supply demand balance of ESs and their multiple drivers remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, an integrated theoretical framework was developed to assess the interactions of socioecological factors, including land use and cover, the social economy, climate, and topography, with the variations in ES supply, demand, and balance, which were mapped at the city scale in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB). A variance inflation factor (VIF) was employed to detect the multicollinearity of the factors, and the sum of Akaike weights was used to simplify the driving factors and identify essential driving factors. We employed variation partitioning analysis (VPA) to reveal the effects of unique and combined drivers on ES supply, demand and balance. The results revealed that undersupply cities (11.93% of the area) were concentrated within the three national urban agglomerations and increased in area from upstream to downstream, whereas oversupply cities (88.07%) were distributed mainly in the surroundings of the urban agglomerations. According to the VPA, the essential driving factors effectively explain the variation in the ES supply, demand, and balance in the YREB. More importantly, these driving factors were simplified with no significant decrease in explanatory power. In oversupply cities, the ES changes were determined based on socioeconomic factors (urbanization rate and population density), land use/land cover (cropland, woodland, and unused land), and their interactions. In undersupply cities, population density (PD) explained the majority of the variation in ESs. However, the effects of climate and topography on ESs were more prominent at the scale of all cities in the YREB. In addition, PD displayed a significant negative correlation with ES supply and balance, but was positively related to ES demand in the undersupply cities. These findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the effects of the interactions among socioecological factors on the supply demand balance of ESs. This study is informative for human well being and sustainable socioeconomic development in the region.

Preliminary assessment of river ecosystem services in the volcanic area of Mount Merapi, Indonesia

AbstractRiver ecosystem services (RES) are vulnerable to landscape changes mainly by volcanic eruptions. Therefore, this study aims to assess RES in the volcanic area which was affected by the major and minor eruptions of Mount Merapi, Indonesia. The RES referred to the regulating and supporting services of the Krasak River in Jogjakarta. The research involved collecting water and biodiversity samples from two distinct Merapi’s hazard zones (KRB I and KRB II) along the river. Parameters related to regulating services, such as particulate, organic, and nutrient purification, biological control, as well as supporting services like primary productivity, were quantified. We conducted an analysis to understand how landscape conditions interacted with these parameters and employed the t-test to assess differences in RES between the two KRBs. Our findings revealed that the Krasak River exhibited a range of values, including 2.40–5.95 mg/l for Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), 0.61–3.41 mg/l for nitrate, 0.02–0.11 mg/l for phosphate, 160–60,000 MPN/100 ml for coliform, and 156.3–937 µg/l for chlorophyll-A. These values demonstrated the river’s capacity to perform both regulation and support services. However, certain segments showed variations in ecosystem services, possibly due to the presence of autochthonous matter from aquatic organisms and decomposing organic matters. This showed that volcanic eruption and landscape are closely linked with the water quality and aquatic biodiversity, which affect the ecosystem services.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driving Factors of Ecosystem Services in the Yellow River Delta, China

Exploring the dynamic variation in ecosystem services and clarifying the driving mechanism will help with the formulation of effective ecological environment protection policies. Accordingly, this study sought to reveal the complex variability in ecosystem services in the Yellow River Delta (YRD) at a higher temporal resolution and the transition between the main driving factors in different periods. To this end, we used the economic equivalent factor valuation method to quantify the ecosystem service value from 2000 to 2019 at 5-year intervals. Furthermore, the Geo-detector model was used to identify the main driving factors and interaction between the driving factors of ecosystem service value variations. Then, we analyzed the temporal and spatial dynamic variations in the ecosystem service value and the transitions between the main driving factors in different periods. The main results are as follows: (1) From 2000 to 2019, the ecosystem service value of the YRD showed an increasing trend followed by a decline, whereby water and construction land increased and the other classes of land decreased. Overall, the inland and coastal distribution patterns exhibited low and high values, respectively. (2) The main driving factors of ecosystem service value variations were the NDVI and topographical factors (aspect, slope, elevation), which had q values that were stable and greater than those of the other factors. Although human activity, tourist resource concentration and traffic convenience factors had a comparatively minor effect on ecosystem services, we noted a trend where their effects increased from 2000 to 2019. (3) The detection of interactions revealed complex mechanisms affecting the variation in the YRD. Interactions between variables had a stronger influence than individual effects. The interactions between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and other factors consistently had the most significant impact. These interactions primarily shaped the spatial and temporal distribution of ecosystem services. The NDVI and human activities exhibited nonlinear enhancement. These results contribute to improving our cognition of the factors and mechanisms influencing ecosystem services, offering theoretical support for the improvement of ecosystem services in the YRD.

Spatiotemporal Variation and Prediction Analysis of Land Use/Land Cover and Ecosystem Service Changes in Gannan, China

For the preservation of ecosystems, including the enhancement of ecological strategies, examining the temporal and geographical variance in ecosystem services (ESs) and land use/land cover change (LUCC) is crucial. Gannan is situated on the upper Yellow River, which is a notable water conservation region with excellent ecological quality, but in the background of the local traditional production mode and rapid economic development, natural disasters, grassland degradation, and other ecological problems occur frequently. The integrated valuing of ecosystem services and tradeoffs (InVEST) model and the patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS) model are combined in this work to assess the spatiotemporal variance in ESs in Gannan. We set up three scenarios in modeling future land use—ecological protection (EP), natural development (ND), and economic development (ED) in 2050—and analyzed and evaluated the drivers of the variation in ESs. In order to reveal the LUCC in Gannan between 1990 and 2020, we predicted the LUCC and ESs spatial distribution characteristics in 2050, explored the correlation between its driving factors, and comprehensively analyzed and propose optimization measures and protection strategies. Through several simulation experiments, the findings indicate the following: (1) the largest percentage of land expansion for construction in Gannan between 1990 and 2020 is 74.53%, and the most noticeable percentage of shrinkage in the sand area is 20.67%; (2) from 1990 to 2020, Gannan’s water yield, carbon storage, soil retention, and habitat quality all changed, by 60 × 108 m3, 0.04 × 108 t, −10.66 × 108 t, and −0.02, respectively; (3) ESs are influenced by a variety of natural and societal variables: the southern and southwestern regions of Gannan are home to the majority of ESs hot spot areas, while the northern region is home to the majority of cold spot areas. This study contributes to the analysis of the developmental traits of Gannan ecosystems and can serve as a model for the preservation of terrestrial ecosystems with comparable environmental traits.

Spatiotemporal variations in ecosystem services and their trade-offs and synergies against the background of the gully control and land consolidation project on the Loess Plateau, China

Spatiotemporal variations in ecosystem services and their trade-offs and synergies against the background of the gully control and land consolidation project on the Loess Plateau, China

Interactions among ecosystem service key factors in vulnerable areas and their response to landscape patterns under the National Grain to Green Program

AbstractA deeper understanding of the interactions between ecosystem services (ESs) and the drivers of the landscape patterns behind them is critical to how ecological restoration projects in ecologically sensitive and fragile areas are planned and managed. However, few studies have explored the response patterns of ESs to changes in landscape patterns from a geospatial perspective. This study aimed to reveal the relationship between key ESs and landscape pattern responses at spatial scales and to propose the optimization of ecological restoration measures in response to ES trade‐offs problem. The InVEST and CASA models were used to assess the spatial and temporal characteristics of five key ESs in the Beichuan River Basin since the completion of the National Grain to Green Program (2000–2020), selected five key factors are as below: habitat quality (HQ); net primary productivity (NPP); water supply (WS); soil conservation (SC); and water conservation (WC). Geographically weighted regression (GWR) models were used to reveal the trade‐offs and synergies between ESs and the driving mechanisms of landscape patterns from a geospatial perspective. The results showed that landscape connectivity in the study area improved and landscape fragmentation decreased during 2000–2020, accompanied by the increase in HQ, SC, and WC, while NPP and WS decreased. The trade‐offs between ESs appeared mainly between NPP and other ESs, with the NPP–WS pair trade‐off being the strongest. Spearman correlation analysis, geographic detectors, and GWR revealed that the dominant landscape pattern indices affecting ESs showed good agreement. The interaction of the two landscape pattern indices had stronger explanatory power for the variation in ESs than any single landscape pattern index. The patch density index, as the most important landscape pattern index affecting NPP and WS, should be the primary consideration in future landscape planning to reconcile the contradiction between WS and NPP. Because of the inherent spatial heterogeneity of ESs and landscape patterns, analyzing their response relationships from a geospatial perspective can provide scientific guidance to decision‐makers.

Evaluation of restoration success in arid rangelands of Iran based on the variation of ecosystem services

Evaluation of restoration success in arid rangelands of Iran based on the variation of ecosystem services

Effects of transport infrastructures and climate change on ecosystem services in the integrated transport corridor region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The ecosystem services of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have been hot topics in recent decades due to their unique value, and the region's sensitivity to climate change and human activities is considered to be of major importance. However, few studies have focused on the variations of ecosystem services in response to traffic activities and climate change. This study applied different ecosystem service models, along with the buffer analysis, local correlation and regression analysis to quantitatively analyze the spatiotemporal variations of carbon sequestration, habitat quality, and soil retention, further detected the climatic and traffic influences in the transport corridor region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau from 2000 to 2020. The obtained results showed the following: (1) The carbon sequestration and soil retention increased over time, while the habitat quality decreased during the railway construction period; in addition, the variations of ecosystem services between the two periods exhibited substantial spatial differences. (2) The distance trends of ecosystem service variations were similar for the railway and the highway corridors, and the positive ecosystem service trends were mainly observed within 2.5 km and 2 km of railway and highway corridors, respectively. (3) The impacts of climatic factors on ecosystem services were predominantly positive; however, temperature and precipitation displayed contrasting distance trends in their impacts on carbon sequestration. (4) The types of frozen ground and locations away from the railway or highway were the combined factors affecting the ecosystem services, among which carbon sequestration was negatively influenced by the distance from the highway in the continuous permafrost areas. It can be speculated that rising temperatures caused by climate change may intensify the decline of carbon sequestration in the continuous permafrost areas. This study provides guidance on ecological protection strategies for future expressway construction projects.

Nonlinear Effects of Landscape Patterns on Ecosystem Services at Multiple Scales Based on Gradient Boosting Decision Tree Models

Exploring the complex effects of landscape patterns on ecosystem services (ESs) has become increasingly important in offering scientific support for effective spatial planning and ecosystem management. However, there is a particular lack of research on the nonlinear effects of landscape patterns on ESs and scale dependence. Taking Huainan City (in China) as a case study, this study adopted the InVEST model to estimate four key ESs including carbon storage (CS), habitat quality (HQ), nitrogen export (NE), and water yield (WY). Then, we calculated the selected landscape metrics at multiple spatial scales. Furthermore, the gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model was developed to investigate the relative importance of landscape metrics in explaining ESs and their nonlinear interrelation. The results indicated that most of the selected landscape metrics were significantly correlated with ESs. The GBDT model, which can explore nonlinear relationships, performed better than the linear regression model in explaining the variations in ESs. The landscape-level metrics of the Shannon’s diversity index (SHDI) and the contagion index (CONTAG) and the class-level metrics of the aggregation index (AI) and edge density (ED) were the most important variables that influenced ESs. The landscape metrics affected ESs within a certain range, and the nonlinear effects varied with scale.

Exploring the influences of different processes of habitat fragmentation on ecosystem services

Exploring the factors influencing ecosystem services (ESs) is crucial for protecting them. Habitat fragmentation is a critical factor that has been proved to have positive or negative effects on various ESs. However, the detailed effects of different habitat fragmentation processes have not been thoroughly explored. This study aimed to explore the complicated influences of different habitat fragmentation processes on the variations in ESs, and identify the most significant influencing processes. The Yangtze River Delta region of China was selected as the study area. Three basic habitat fragmentation processes were quantified: a decrease in habitat area, an increase in habitat isolation, and an increase in habitat edge. Generalized additive models and a geographical detector were adopted to explore the influences of different fragmentation processes on the variations in the four ESs. The results suggested that different habitat fragmentation processes had linear/nonlinear/combined effects on different ESs, and the decrease in habitat area was the most significant fragmentation process. Carbon storage and habitat quality were affected significantly by habitat fragmentation. However, habitat fragmentation contributed less to the variations in water yield and soil retention, because they were more closely associated with climate factors. The influences of these fragmentation processes exhibited a positive and nonlinear interaction. These findings suggest that integrating the nonlinear effects of fragmentation in practical ESs management and landscape planning might be essential. Moreover, our study provides a fundamental reference for related research.

Identifying Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs and Their Response to Landscape Patterns at Different Scales in an Agricultural Basin in Central China

Identifying relationships among multiple ecosystem services (ESs) at different scales and the factors affecting such relationships is the foundation for sustainable ecosystem management. A case study was conducted in the Sihu Lake Basin, an agricultural basin in Central China, to examine the interactions among ESs across different scales and the responses to landscape pattern changes (2000–2020). The results indicate that (1) agricultural land and wetlands were converted into construction land and gradually decreased in size; forestland and artificial channels gradually increased in size. (2) ESs had spatial heterogeneity in their strength at the grid and county scales. (3) Most relationships between ESs were synergistic at the grid and county scales, and most correlations increased as the scale increased due to landscape consistency. (4) The landscape metrics explained approximately 45.56–61.06% of the variations in ESs, and the main influencing factor was agricultural land. Our results demonstrated that the construction of rivers and channels, dense and widely distributed agricultural land and construction land were more positively correlated with increasing crop production and nitrogen export, whereas forestland exhibited a stronger contribution to increasing carbon storage and water yield. These findings explore appropriate management methods for agricultural development and ecological conservation in agricultural basins.

Exploring nexus between ecosystem services and livelihood dependency for sustainable ecosystem management in lower Gangetic plains, Eastern India.

The flows of ecosystem services (ESs) from ecological patches (EPs) are being severely challenged due to global change. However, the evaluation of nexus between tribal society and ecological units with focus of tribal livelihood was not a subject of enquiry until recent past. Present study hypothesized that the different EPs has differential nexus in terms of delivery of ESs in Barind region, Eastern India. Dependency and prominence of l livelihood on ESs was evaluated through developing ES dependency index (ESDI) and ecosystem services prominence index (ESPI). Five sub-components (comprising 25 indicators) and ten dominant provisioning ecosystem services (PES) were considered to develop ESDI and ESPI respectively. The seasonal variations of availability of ESs from EPs were also assessed-based five-point Likert scale. The findings of the study showed that (i) the households were highly dependent on PES for their livelihood strategies; (ii) agricultural crops (main foods), housing materials, fuel woods, water, livestock, and medical plants were the dominant ESs; (iii) forests, agricultural lands, water bodies, and homesteads were the main EPs from which ESs were collected; (iv) there was positive correlation between ESDI and ESPI. Moreover, there was substantial variation on dependency of ESs across villages was observed and seasonal variation in ESs was noted in terms of availability and dependency with maximum contribution during the monsoon season. The result clearly suggests that there is a strong nexus between livelihood strategies and ESs in the region. Therefore, diversification of livelihood strategies must be integrated with ESs for human well-being (HWB) as well as environmental sustainability.

Variation in ecosystem services of street tree assemblages can guide sustainable urban development

Abstract Urban afforestation is an important strategy for promoting sustainable urban development. In cities where large new green spaces are not available, the planting of curbside trees is deemed to be an important afforestation strategy. However, variations in the ecosystem services provided by street tree assemblages across socioeconomic gradients have been unexplored. We examined such variations in ecosystem services provided by street tree assemblages along an urban–suburban continuum. Our findings were as follows. (i) Not all ecosystem services showed increasing trends along the urban–suburban continuum. Some ecosystem services at the street tree assemblage level, such as air purification and rainfall interception were prominent in areas of high urbanization intensity. (ii) Diverse ecosystem service trends were found in relation to differential characteristics of street trees assemblages. Structural properties of street tree assemblages, such as tree density and age structure, are likely key factors influencing variations. (iii) Although street tree density could partially compensate for the loss of large old trees, the protection of such trees is important because of their close associations with key ecosystem services, such as total carbon storage. To maximize the value of street trees in promoting urban sustainable development, trade-offs among multiple ecosystem services should be integrated within the overall planning process and adjustments of planting regimes.

Spatio-temporal changes in ecosystem service bundles and hotspots in Beressa watershed of the Ethiopian highlands: Implications for landscape management

Assessment of the change in ecosystem services and their bundles and hotspots in a spatial-explicitly manner can provide practical support for ecological conservation measure priority setting. This study assessed the spatio-temporal dynamics of vital ecosystem services (ESs) from 1972 to 2047 and identified statistically significant hotspots and coldspots of ES clusters in the Beressa watershed using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model and spatial statistical analysis. The result showed that the provision of ESs significantly declined over the study period. Habitat maintenance, sediment retention, and water retention were spatially co-occurring, while the service of climate regulation and crop yield showed a reasonable difference in their distribution. Consequently, spatial and temporal correlations within hydrological regulating services and habitat maintenance were consistent, however the relationship between crop yield and regulating services varied with time. The result of spatial clustering indicated that bundle 1 and 2 had high hydrological and allied services due to a high proportion of grassland, clustered in western areas with lower elevation and relatively gentle slope. Bundle 3 with high agricultural provisioning showed various distribution during the study period. Bundle 4 had increased climate regulation clustered in eastern areas in high elevation and steep slope land and holds a high proportion of plantation. On average, hotspot and coldspot comprised about 24% and 48% of the space, respectively. Hotspots delivered most ESs, and their area declined, while coldspots increased during the study period. The spatio-temporal variations in ESs appeared to be determined by human activities, especially expansion of artificial plantation, human settlements, agricultural practice, and topographic gradient. ES bundles and hotspots analyses can identify areas in the landscape whereby ecosystem management has produced maximum benefits through enhancing services. Therefore, landscape preference should be integrated into land management plans to amend ecosystem's function.

Spatiotemporal Variation in Ecosystem Services and Their Drivers among Different Landscape Heterogeneity Units and Terrain Gradients in the Southern Hill and Mountain Belt, China

Understanding the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of ecosystem services (ESs) and their drivers in mountainous areas is important for sustainable ecosystem management. However, the effective construction of landscape heterogeneous units (LHUs) to reflect the spatial characteristics of ESs remains to be studied. The southern hill and mountain belt (SHMB) is a typical mountainous region in China, with undulating terrain and obvious spatial heterogeneity of ESs, and was selected as the study area. In this study, we used the fuzzy k-means (FKM) algorithm to establish LHUs. Three major ESs (water yield, net primary productivity (NPP), and soil conservation) in 2000 and 2015 were quantified using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model and Carnegie Ames-Stanford approach (CASA) model. Then, we explored the spatial variation in ESs along terrain gradients and LHUs. Correlation analysis was used to analyze the driving factors of ESs in each terrain region and LHU. The results showed that altitude and terrain niche increased along LHUs. Water yield and soil conservation increased from 696.86 mm and 3920.19 t/km2 to 1061.12 mm and 5117.90 t/km2, respectively, while NPP decreased from 666.95 gC/m2 to 648.86 gC/m2. The ESs in different LHUs differed greatly. ESs increased first and then decreased along LHUs in 2000. In 2015, water yield decreased along LHUs, while NPP and soil conservation showed a fluctuating trend. Water yield was mainly affected by precipitation, temperature and NDVI were the main drivers of NPP, and soil conservation was greatly affected by precipitation and slope. The driving factors of the same ES were different in different terrain areas and LHUs. The variation and driving factors of ESs in LHUs were similar to some terrain gradients. To some extent, LHUs can represent multiple terrain features. This study can provide important support for mountain ecosystem zoning management and decision-making.

An analytical approach for assessment of geographical variation in ecosystem service intensity in Punjab, Pakistan.

Ecosystem services (ESs) are a diverse range of environmental properties that have significant effects on both landscape characteristics and human well-being, an understanding of the spatial variation of which is required for effective ecosystem management and conservation. In this study, we aimed to identify the geographical variation in ESs and examine the factors impacting ESs in Punjab Province, Pakistan. We evaluated ecosystem service intensity (ESI) by using the benefit transfer method and investigated the spatial heterogeneity of ESIs at the tehsil level by using an exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) model and semivariance analysis. This analysis indicated that spatial distribution of ESI shows significant and optimal spatial heterogeneity of ESs, revealing several hot and cold spots for ESI transformation in the study area. The ESI decreased from east to west and north to south, with a trough in the metropolitan zones, including Lahore, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad, and Multan, which was in accordance with the land use/cover pattern. Furthermore, using geographically weighted regression (GWR) analysis, we also identified geographical clusters within which land use/cover pressure and population growth were significantly positively associated with ESI across the province, based on a lag distance scale. The findings of this study have functional economic implications with respect to highlighting areas worthy of conservation and designing ecological corridors to enhance the delivery of ESs for regional benefits.

Trade-offs Among Ecosystem Services After Vegetation Restoration in China’s Loess Plateau

A large-scale vegetation restoration program that was implemented in China’s Loess Plateau has significantly changed ecosystem patterns, resulting in variations in ecosystem services. However, trade-offs among multiple ecosystem services were rarely considered after land-use changes have occurred. To understand the impact of vegetation restoration on those ecosystem services, 139 soil samples were collected from forestland, shrubland, grassland, and sloping cropland across the Wangmaogou watershed to assess soil organic carbon storage (SOCS), soil water content (SWC), soil total nitrogen storage (STNS), and soil conservation service (SCS) changes. Values of SOCS in shrubland (6.91 kg m−2), grassland (7.18 kg m−2), and forestland (7.31 kg m−2) were higher than in sloping cropland (6.02 kg m−2). Likewise, SCS and STNS were higher in vegetation land-use than in sloping cropland. However, SWC decreased in grassland, shrubland, and forestland compared to sloping cropland. The trends in SWC and other ecosystem services showed high trade-offs. Grassland had higher effects for SWC–SOCS and SWC–STNS than did forest- or shrubland. To coordinate ecosystem services and maintain regional sustainable development, grassland was suggested as a more effective land-use type in the water limited areas. In addition, reasonable planting density should be considered in future vegetation restoration.

Terrain gradient variations in ecosystem services of different vegetation types in mountainous regions: Vegetation resource conservation and sustainable development

Natural vegetation plays a vital role in ecosystem services, while anthropogenic land-use change causes extensive damage to natural vegetation, decreasing ecosystem services, and impacting human well-being. Therefore, it is of great significance to establish protected areas and implement vegetation protection measures. Ecosystem services depend on the vegetation type and terrain, but this topic has not been considered in detail in policy implementations. In this study, the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model was used to evaluate water yield, carbon storage, soil conservation, and water purification in the Chuan-Dian ecological shelter. Statistical methods were applied to analyze the differences in ecosystem services of different vegetation types and determine spatial variations in ecosystem services along terrain (altitude, slope, landform relief, and terrain niche) gradients. The results showed that ecosystem services differed for different vegetation types, and natural forests provided higher ecosystem services than other vegetation types, except for water yield. The rational allocation of forests, shrubs, and grasses and the implementation of organic agriculture and agroforestry systems are important measures to ensure sustainable economic and ecological development. We used the ordered weighted average method to select priority conservation areas based on ecosystem services. The priority conservation areas can play an important role in vegetation management in mountainous regions. This study provides new perspectives for vegetation protection and sustainable development in large-scale mountain areas.

LAND USE LAND COVER CHANGES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE NZHELELE RIVER CATCHMENT, SOUTH AFRICA

Abstract. Land use change can result in variations in ecosystem services (ESS) and their relationships. Studying the temporal dynamics of ESS and their relationships can support scenario analyses that provide the theoretical basis for policy decisions and regional ecosystem management in any context. Understanding the spatiotemporal changes in land use and land cover change helps understand ESS management. In this study, the InVEST model was applied to assess carbon sequestration from 1999 to 2018 and to construct two simulated scenarios that represented different land use strategies. The results showed a spatial increase in the cropland class from the stipulated years with a corresponding increase in carbon within the area. It is assumed that the relationship between these two phenomena can affect agricultural policies as a large portion of South Africa depends on it for livelihood betterment. The Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient was used to assess the relationship between the two ESS. The result showed a highly significant correlation that means a change in policy from a governmental level is required. This paper subtly aims to provide data towards the South African context and more scenarios and research is needed to fully deduce effective land use management policies and decisions.

Ecosystem service changes in response to mainland coastline movements in China: Process, pattern, and trade-off

Abstract The coastal zone is one of the most valuable ecosystems worldwide because of the diverse and significant ecosystem services (ESs) it provides for human survival and development. Changes in land-use including coastal reclamation and erosion have altered the distribution of coastline and caused substantial changes in the structure and value of coastal ESs. In the past four decades, the mainland coastline in China has undergone extensive changes primarily due to coastal reclamation. This study investigated changes in land-use and spatiotemporal variations in ESs in response to coastline movements in China over the last four decades. The results indicate that land area increased by 1.10 million ha in response to coastline movements in this time period, primarily due to reclamation for aquaculture pond, port, construction land and the development of tied islands. Coastline movements have decreased ecosystem service values (ESVs) by $6.83 billion over the past four decades. Additionally, coastline movements have affected the ESV structure, decreasing the ESVs of erosion prevention and waste treatment functions while increasing the ESV functions of gas regulation and moderation of disturbance. Greater attentions should be paid to the protection and restoration of natural coastal land in China. By assessing the loss of ESVs quantitatively in response to coastline movements, this study provides some suggestions for ecosystem-based management of coastal land in China.