Variation In Lipid Concentrations Research Articles

Lipid control in adult Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective analysis of time trends and geographic regional differences.

Lipid control in adult Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective analysis of time trends and geographic regional differences.

Plasma lipidomic profiles of kidney, breast and prostate cancer patients differ from healthy controls

Early detection of cancer is one of the unmet needs in clinical medicine. Peripheral blood analysis is a preferred method for efficient population screening, because blood collection is well embedded in clinical practice and minimally invasive for patients. Lipids are important biomolecules, and variations in lipid concentrations can reflect pathological disorders. Lipidomic profiling of human plasma by the coupling of ultrahigh-performance supercritical fluid chromatography and mass spectrometry is investigated with the aim to distinguish patients with breast, kidney, and prostate cancers from healthy controls. The mean sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the lipid profiling approach were 85%, 95%, and 92% for kidney cancer; 91%, 97%, and 94% for breast cancer; and 87%, 95%, and 92% for prostate cancer. No association of statistical models with tumor stage is observed. The statistically most significant lipid species for the differentiation of cancer types studied are CE 16:0, Cer 42:1, LPC 18:2, PC 36:2, PC 36:3, SM 32:1, and SM 41:1 These seven lipids represent a potential biomarker panel for kidney, breast, and prostate cancer screening, but a further verification step in a prospective study has to be performed to verify clinical utility.

Sex-specific variations in lipid concentrations following a low-fat diet are mediated by vitamin D status: a 12-week prospective dietary intervention study among Christian Orthodox fasters

Sex-specific variations in lipid concentrations following a low-fat diet are mediated by vitamin D status: a 12-week prospective dietary intervention study among Christian Orthodox fasters

Association of apolipoprotein E gene polymorphisms with blood lipids and their interaction with dietary factors

BackgroundSeveral candidate genes have been identified in relation to lipid metabolism, and among these, lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene polymorphisms are major sources of genetically determined variation in lipid concentrations. This study investigated the association of two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at LPL, seven tagging SNPs at the APOE gene, and a common APOE haplotype (two SNPs) with blood lipids, and examined the interaction of these SNPs with dietary factors.MethodsThe population studied for this investigation included 660 individuals from the Prevention of Cancer by Intervention with Selenium (PRECISE) study who supplied baseline data. The findings of the PRECISE study were further replicated using 1238 individuals from the Caerphilly Prospective cohort (CaPS). Dietary intake was assessed using a validated food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in PRECISE and a validated semi-quantitative FFQ in the CaPS. Interaction analyses were performed by including the interaction term in the linear regression model adjusted for age, body mass index, sex and country.ResultsThere was no association between dietary factors and blood lipids after Bonferroni correction and adjustment for confounding factors in either cohort. In the PRECISE study, after correction for multiple testing, there was a statistically significant association of the APOE haplotype (rs7412 and rs429358; E2, E3, and E4) and APOE tagSNP rs445925 with total cholesterol (P = 4 × 10− 4 and P = 0.003, respectively). Carriers of the E2 allele had lower total cholesterol concentration (5.54 ± 0.97 mmol/L) than those with the E3 (5.98 ± 1.05 mmol/L) (P = 0.001) and E4 (6.09 ± 1.06 mmol/L) (P = 2 × 10− 4) alleles. The association of APOE haplotype (E2, E3, and E4) and APOE SNP rs445925 with total cholesterol (P = 2 × 10− 6 and P = 3 × 10− 4, respectively) was further replicated in the CaPS. Additionally, significant association was found between APOE haplotype and APOE SNP rs445925 with low density lipoprotein cholesterol in CaPS (P = 4 × 10− 4 and P = 0.001, respectively). After Bonferroni correction, none of the cohorts showed a statistically significant SNP-diet interaction on lipid outcomes.ConclusionIn summary, our findings from the two cohorts confirm that genetic variations at the APOE locus influence plasma total cholesterol concentrations, however, the gene-diet interactions on lipids require further investigation in larger cohorts.

Differential associations of plasma lipids with incident dementia and dementia subtypes in the 3C Study: A longitudinal, population-based prospective cohort study.

BackgroundVascular risk factors have been proposed as important targets for the prevention of dementia. As lipid fractions represent easily modifiable targets, we examined the longitudinal relationship of baseline lipid fractions with 13-y incident dementia and its subtypes (Alzheimer disease [AD] and mixed or vascular dementia) in older community-dwelling persons.Methods and findingsNon-institutionalized persons aged 65+ y (n = 9,294) were recruited for the Three-City Study (3C Study), a population-based cohort study from the electoral rolls of the cities of Dijon, Bordeaux, and Montpellier, France, between March 1999 and March 2001. Follow-up examinations were performed every 2 y after the baseline assessment. The final study sample comprised 7,470 participants from the 3C Study (mean age ± standard deviation [SD] 73.8 ± 5.3 y, 61.0% women) who were prospectively followed up for up to 13 y. Fasting lipid fractions (triglycerides [TGs], high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C], low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C], total cholesterol [TC]) were studied as continuous variables, and results are reported per SD increase of each lipid fraction. Incident dementia and its subtypes were studied as censored variables using Cox models with age as time scale. Analyses were adjusted for sex, study center, and educational level, as well as vascular risk factors and apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 genotype. We corrected for multiple testing, yielding a significance threshold of 0.0169. p-Values above the significance threshold but less than 0.05 were considered nominally significant.During a mean (± SD) follow-up period of 7.9 ± 3.6 y, 779 participants developed incident dementia (n = 532 AD and n = 154 mixed or vascular dementia). Higher LDL-C and TC concentrations at baseline were associated with an increased risk of AD (hazard ratio [HR] per SD increase = 1.13 [95% CI 1.04–1.22], p = 0.0045, and HR = 1.12 [1.03–1.22], p = 0.0072, respectively). These associations were largely unchanged after adjustment for vascular risk factors and were attenuated after adjustment for APOEε4 (HR per SD increase = 1.12 [1.03–1.23], p = 0.0110, and HR = 1.12 [1.02–1.23], p = 0.0171, respectively). Higher TG concentrations at baseline were associated with an increased risk of all dementia (HR per SD increase = 1.11 [1.03–1.19], p = 0.0044) and mixed or vascular dementia (HR = 1.21 [1.04–1.41], p = 0.0163). However, these associations disappeared after adjusting for vascular risk factors (HR = 1.07 [0.98–1.17], p = 0.1374, and HR = 1.17 [0.96–1.42], p = 0.1206, respectively). Main limitations of the study include interval censoring of incident dementia cases, potential selective survival bias, and the fact that variation in lipid concentrations during follow-up could not be accounted for in the analyses.ConclusionsIn a large population-based sample of older community-dwelling persons with up to 13 y of follow-up, we observed that higher LDL-C and TC concentrations were associated with an increased risk of AD. This result was independent of vascular risk factors and was attenuated after adjustment for APOEε4 carrier status. TG and HDL-C concentrations were not associated with risk of incident dementia or its subtypes after accounting for vascular risk factors.

The fate of cutin and suberin of decaying leaves, needles and roots – Inferences from the initial decomposition of bound fatty acids

The lipid biopolymers cutin and suberin are frequently used as biomarkers to distinguish above – from below-ground plant tissue input in soil. Despite a growing number of studies, still little is known about their fate during decomposition. The aim of this study was to investigate the decomposition of bound fatty acids with a special emphasis on cutin and suberin and to evaluate the effect of inherent chemical properties on decomposition. We incubated fresh leaves, needles and roots of European beech and Norway spruce for 84days in a laboratory experiment. Cutin and suberin derived monomers were obtained by a sequential extraction procedure with subsequent GC-MS measurement. We monitored the mass loss of the plant materials, changes in chemical composition using solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy and, from this, calculated relative amounts of biomolecule components (i.e., relative lignin content). Our results suggest that both cutin and suberin biopolymers are readily decomposed without any indication of suberin being more resistant than cutin. The concentrations of cutin and suberin derived monomers were exponentially correlated to the mass loss of the respective plant material and rapidly decreased (beech: cutin: 47.4±2.1%, suberin: 30.8±5.5%; spruce: cutin: 31.2±2.4%, suberin: 22.0±4.8% of the initial concentration) at the beginning of the incubation, but leveled off towards the end. This indicates that studies which assume a similar degradation of biomarker and source plant material might underestimate the turnover of root and shoot derived soil organic matter. Beside the tested inherent chemical properties of the lipids (number of C atoms in each monomer, type and location of chemical functional groups), the relative lignin content explained a considerable portion of the variation in lipid concentrations over time. We thus propose a two phase model for the initial decomposition of cutin and suberin: (1) in early phases, cutin or suberin that is not associated with lignin is readily consumed by microorganisms resulting in a rapid decrease of the respective polymer. (2) After the first phase, only cutin or suberin associated with lignin remains, resulting in a decomposition that proceeds with the initially low decay rate of lignin. However, a substantial part of the variation in lipid concentrations was not accounted for by the tested factors. This suggests that the decomposition of cutin and suberin is additionally modulated by a not yet quantified external factor.

Lipid-Induced Peroxidation in the Intestine Is Involved in Glucose Homeostasis Imbalance in Mice

BackgroundDaily variations in lipid concentrations in both gut lumen and blood are detected by specific sensors located in the gastrointestinal tract and in specialized central areas. Deregulation of the lipid sensors could be partly involved in the dysfunction of glucose homeostasis. The study aimed at comparing the effect of Medialipid (ML) overload on insulin secretion and sensitivity when administered either through the intestine or the carotid artery in mice.Methodology/Principal FindingsAn indwelling intragastric or intracarotid catheter was installed in mice and ML or an isocaloric solution was infused over 24 hours. Glucose and insulin tolerance and vagus nerve activity were assessed. Some mice were treated daily for one week with the anti-lipid peroxidation agent aminoguanidine prior to the infusions and tests. The intestinal but not the intracarotid infusion of ML led to glucose and insulin intolerance when compared with controls. The intestinal ML overload induced lipid accumulation and increased lipid peroxidation as assessed by increased malondialdehyde production within both jejunum and duodenum. These effects were associated with the concomitant deregulation of vagus nerve. Administration of aminoguanidine protected against the effects of lipid overload and normalized glucose homeostasis and vagus nerve activity.Conclusions/SignificanceLipid overload within the intestine led to deregulation of gastrointestinal lipid sensing that in turn impaired glucose homeostasis through changes in autonomic nervous system activity.

Exocrine pancreatic cancer clinical factors were related to timing of blood extraction and influenced serum concentrations of lipids

Objective Disease-induced changes in blood concentrations of lipids may bias etiologic studies. We analyzed the influence of clinical factors and timing of blood extraction on serum concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides in exocrine pancreatic cancer (EPC). Study Design and Setting Subjects were 144 incident cases of EPC prospectively recruited in five teaching hospitals in eastern Spain. Results Higher concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, and total lipids were observed among patients with a shorter interval from first symptom of cancer to blood extraction (IES); but concentrations were lower in patients with longer IES. The relationship between cholesterol and tumor stage was “n-shaped.” Jaundice and other components of the cholestatic syndrome increased cholesterol and triglycerides. Invasive diagnostic tests were associated with lower cholesterol. All these factors were related to changes >50 mg/dl in cholesterol ( P < 0.05), even when adjusting by stage. Statistical models including IES, number of invasive diagnostic tests, jaundice, weight loss, and stage explained over 28% of the variation in lipid concentrations. Conclusion Restriction and adjustment by stage may be insufficient to prevent biases related to disease progression. Multivariate analyses may allow to control to some extent the influence of clinical symptoms, procedures, and timing of blood extraction in studies on the etiological significance of lipids and lipophilic compounds, either risk factors or protective agents.

Influence of Clinical Factors and Timing of Blood Extraction on Lipid Concentrations in Pancreatic Cancer

ISEE-250 Objective: To analyze potential implications for the design, conduct, analysis, and interpretation of epidemiologic studies of relationships among clinical factors, timing of blood extraction, and serum concentrations of lipids in patients with exocrine pancreatic cancer (EPC). Material and Methods: Subjects were 144 incident cases of EPC prospectively recruited in 5 teaching hospitals in eastern Spain. A structured form was used to collect clinicopathologic information from medical records. Cases were interviewed face-to-face by trained monitors during hospital stay. Total cholesterol and triglycerides concentrations were determined enzymatically using CHOD-PAP and GPO-PAP. Results: Higher concentrations of cholesterol were observed among patients with a shorter interval from first symptom of cancer to blood extraction (IES), and thereafter concentrations decreased with time. The relationship between cholesterol and tumor stage was “n-shaped”: as compared with patients with a tumor in stage I, those with tumors in stages II and III showed increasing cholesterol levels (difference between medians up to 66 mg/dL), and then cholesterol was again lower in patients with stage IV tumors. Jaundice and the other components of the cholestatic syndrome increased cholesterol and triglycerides. Invasive diagnostic tests were associated with lower cholesterol. All these factors were related to changes >50 mg/dL in cholesterol (P < 0.05), even when adjusting by stage. Models including IES, number of invasive tests, jaundice, weight loss, and stage explained over 28% of the variation in lipid concentrations. Conclusions: Results suggest that restriction and adjustment by stage may be insufficient to prevent biases due to disease-induced changes in blood concentrations of lipids. They also emphasize the importance of accounting for clinical symptoms, procedures, and timing of blood extraction in studies on the etiologic significance of lipids and lipophilic compounds, either risk factors (eg, persistent toxic substances) or protective agents (eg, fat-soluble drugs and vitamins).

Apolipoprotein AI and CIII gene polymorphisms and their association with lipid levels in Italian, Greek and Anglo-Irish populations of Australia

The apolipoprotein (apo) AI-CIII-AIV gene cluster on chromosome 11 has been identified as a candidate region for hyperlipidaemia and in particular for hypertriglyceridaemia. Our aim was to detect associations between the apo AI and CIII polymorphisms and the plasma lipids, total cholesterol, triglycerides, high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in normal, healthy, adults from three ethnic groups of Australia--Italian, Greek and Anglo-Irish, separately by gender. The SstI restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) in the 3' untranslated region of the apo CIII gene and the MspI RFLP in the third intron of the apo AI gene were scored and the lipid concentrations were ascertained using standard methodologies. t-tests were used to compare lipid levels between sexes and between populations, and multivariate ANOVA was used to detect if the two RFLPs had an effect on any of the lipid concentrations. The two RFLPs exhibit strong linkage disequilibrium in all three populations (p < 0.001). There were some significant differences in allele frequencies among the populations: the minor S2 allele was more frequent in Italians (0.12) than Greeks (0.03) (p = 0.003), and the minor M2 allele was more common in Greeks (0.14) than Anglo-Irish (0.05) (p = 0.026). We found no significant association between either of the RFLPs and any of the lipid concentrations in either sex of all three populations. However, Kruskal-Wallis tests detected associations of borderline significance between apo AI MspI genotypes and triglycerides (p = 0.04) and between apo AI MspI genotypes and cholesterol levels (p = 0.03) in Anglo-Irish females. Because only two statistically significant associations were detected among a number of comparisons, our data suggest that the apo AI and CIII polymorphisms play only a very limited role in mediating variation in lipid concentrations in these three ethnic groups.

Changes in lipoprotein composition in horses fed a fat-supplemented diet

This study was designed to compare the effects of a fat-supplemented diet versus a traditional diet on the lipoprotein (LP) content in horses. In the first of two trials, eight two-year old horses were fed a basal diet, in which 80% of the digestible energy was supplied as chopped alfalfa hay. One group of four horses (fat-supplemented group, FS) was fed the remaining 20% of the digestible energy as corn oil, while the other group of four horses (control) was fed rolled corn to complete their diet. Blood samples were collected at the start of the experiment and every 2.5 weeks thereafter for 10 weeks. Total serum lipids were measured in both groups of horses and the lipoproteins were fractionated into very low density LP (VLDL), low density LP (LDL), and high density LP (HDL) using ultracentrifugation and agarose-column chromatography. Each LP fraction was measured for protein, cholesterol (CH) and triglyceride TG) content. Total serum lipids were increased in the FS group above the control (9.16 vs. 4.65 mg/ml, week 5). Serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations were elevated in the FS group, but were highly variable. Variations in lipid concentrations may have been due to variation in time of sampling during the day. In the second trial, four of the eight horses were used and divided into the same two groups; FS vs. control. After an initial sample, postprandial serial blood samples (1 hour intervals for 8 hours) were drawn at 2, 4 and 6 weeks. Upon examination of the data, Hour 3 post-feeding was chosen to represent postprandial LP values. In both trials, the horses were able to adapt to the added dietary fat. Maintenance of body weight and increased speed of lipid clearance from the blood by the end of each trial in the FS group support this statement. In the FS group, there was an increase in VLDL TG concentration, but not in LDL. This indicates an increase in VLDL TG clearance from the circulation, presumably by increased lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity. Cholesterol concentrations were also increased in the FS horses in the LDL and HDL. The rise in cholesterol may be attributed to endogenous recycling of liver products such as bile salts, which aid in digestion and absorption and are cholesterol based. In addition, there were greater quantities of LDL and HOL produced in the FS horses as supported by the increased protein concentrations as well as larger peaks for the eluate from the gel filtration column.

Restricted Feed Intake during Fattening Reduces Intramuscular Lipid Deposition without Modifying Muscle Fiber Characteristics in Rabbits

The present study was conducted to determine the effects of feed restriction during fattening on muscle fiber characteristics and intramuscular lipid traits. From 11 wk of age onward, rabbits were given free access to feed (control group), or received 70% of the control feed intake (restricted group). At the same weight at slaughter, restricted-fed rabbits were 3 wk older than controls (18 vs. 15 wk). The longissimus lumborum (LL, white loin), biceps femoris (BF, white thigh) and semimembranosus proprius (SMP, red thigh) muscles were then removed, and biochemical and histochemical assays were performed. In the three muscles, there was no effect of feed restriction on mean fiber size or percentage of the different fiber types. Restricted vs. control feeding resulted in a significant reduction (P<0.001) in total lipid content in all three muscles. This reduction was paralleled by a decline (P<0.001) in the activities of the malic enzyme and glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), generating NADPH for the support of fatty acid synthesis. The diet-induced variations in lipid concentration and enzyme activities were larger (P<0.05) in the pure oxidative SMP muscle than in the predominantly fast-twitch glycolytic LL and BF muscles. Whatever feeding status, the ratio of malic enzyme to G6PDH activities was sharply lower (P<0.001) in SMP than in BF and LL muscles (averaging 1.5 vs. 9 and 15, respectively). These data indicate that nutritional status regulates intramuscular lipid deposition, without changing fiber-type composition. Further studies are necessary to determine the role of G6PDH in the lipogenic process of oxidative vs. glycolytic muscles.

Phenotypic variation in patients heterozygous for familial defective apolipoprotein B (FDB) in three European countries.

A glutamine-for-arginine substitution at amino acid position 3500 of apolipoprotein B (apo B) causes synthesis of LDL with reduced binding affinity to the LDL receptor (LDLR). The associated clinical syndrome has been named familial defective apolipoprotein B- 100 (FDB). In 205 FDB patients from Germany (n = 73). The Netherlands (n = 87), and Denmark (n = 45), we tried to assess determinants of variation in lipid concentrations. Besides age, sex, and geographic origin, variation in the LDLR gene was the most powerful determinant of variation in total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels. Polymorphic variation in the LDLR gene (SfaNI, exon 2; Nco I, exon 18) was associated with total cholesterol (TC) and LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) variation in women (SfaNI: P = .04 and .03 for TC and LDL-C, respectively; Nco I; P = .003 and .006, respectively), whereas the Ava II (exon 13) and the Pvu II (intron 15) polymorphisms were not. Combined information from all three LDLR exon polymorphisms showed that subjects with at least one S + A + N + allele had 13% to 20% higher TC than non-S + A + N + subjects (P = .02 [TC, men]; P = .01 [LDL-C, men]; P = .005 [TC, women]; and P = .004 [LDL-C, women]) and, together with age and geographic origin, accounted for 20% (women) and 19% (men) of the variation in LDL-C. The expected association of the apo E genotypes (e3e2, e3e3, and e3e4) with cholesterol concentrations was seen in S + A + N + but not in non-S + A + N + subjects and in P-P- but not in P + P + or P + P- subjects. With regard to clinical expression, FDB patients had lower TC and LDL-C levels and a lower prevalence of cardiovascular disease than 101 Danish patients with familial hypercholesterolemia.

Apolipoprotein B gene polymorphisms in ischemic heart disease and hypercholesterolemia: effects of age and sex.

The association of polymorphic alleles of the apolipoprotein B gene (Insertion/Deletion-, XbaI-, MspI-, EcoRI-, and 3'-VNTR polymorphisms) with variation in lipid concentrations (total cholesterol (T-C), HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), and log-triglycerides (TG)) in plasma was studied in 259 men and 59 women with moderate hypercholesterolemia (T-C 5.5-8.0 mmol/l and TG < 2.5 mmol/l) and ischemic heart disease, especially in relation to the effect of sex and age. The XbaI and the Ins/Del polymorphic alleles were associated with variation in T-C, but only in patients below the 75th percentile for age. The XbaI and Ins/Del polymorphic alleles were synergistically associated with variation in T-C: the X+ and the Del alleles were associated with higher cholesterol concentrations. Younger male patients had the highest frequency of haplotypes including both the X+ and the Del alleles, but the most striking difference was a significantly higher frequency of haplotypes including both the X- and the Ins alleles in female and in older male patients. The heterogeneity of association of polymorphic alleles in the apolipoprotein B gene to complex traits like hypercholesterolemia and ischemic heart disease in this study could explain why in most studies the X+ allele has been associated with higher cholesterol levels, whereas the X- allele has been associated with symptomatic atherosclerosis. The results of our study emphasize the importance of age and sex in measured genotype association studies.

Lipid profiles in healthy fertile Singaporean women.

Serum lipid profiles were studied in 167 healthy fertile Singaporean women, aged between 18 and 40 and comprising 114 Chinese, 28 Malays and 25 Indians. Parity or ethnic differences did not affect lipid concentrations. Except for triglycerides which showed a decreasing trend, there was no significant variation in lipid concentrations with age. However, all lipid concentrations except HDL cholesterol (which decreased) appeared to increase with body mass index. Compared with other populations, these Singaporean women appeared to have higher mean concentrations of total cholesterol and lower mean concentrations of HDL cholesterol. The possibility that these differences could have contributed to the increasing incidence of coronary heart disease in Singapore is discussed.

A new method for quenching correction leads to revisions of data in receptor autoradiography

Differential quenching of beta-emission affects strongly the analysis of receptor distribution patterns in quantitative receptor autoradiography with tritiated ligands. Different methods for the quenching correction have been described in the past, but some of these are of limited value, if a detailed anatomical parcellation is necessary. Other methods correct exclusively local variations in lipid concentration, which is an important, but only one of several factors causing quenching. A new method for the measurement of quenching (or autoradiographic efficiency) is presented, which permits an anatomically detailed and direct determination of the total quenching without lipid extraction procedures. This method is based on the measurement of autoradiographic efficiency in cryostat sections homogeneously labeled with tritiated formaldehyde by an underlying gelatine section containing this labeled compound. Regional and layer specific measurements of autoradiographic efficiency in cortical and subcortical regions of the human and rat brain are reported. A significant correlation was found between the density of myelin and autoradiographic efficiency but other factors were also shown to influence differential quenching. The use of the here presented correction procedure leads to revisions of the laminar distribution patterns reported for different receptors in human and rat cortical areas. Our results show, that a complete quenching correction is necessary for the mapping of receptor distributions with tritiated ligands.

Serum lipoproteins and atherosclerosis in animals

The lipoproteins have been examined in more than 300 serum or plasma samples taken during life or at post mortem from a fairly wide range of mammals, birds and reptiles. The material, which was collected over a period of several years, was subjected to a limited range of lipid analyses, but all specimens were submitted to electrophoresis with paper or cellulose acetate membrane as supporting medium. The lipoprotein pattern in mammals appears to be basically similar to that in man, but there are wide variations in lipid concentrations; the highest levels being found in bears, seals and primates. High concentrations were also observed in many birds and a few reptiles, but the lipoprotein patterns in these vertebrates differ from those in mammals and are further greatly modified by oviparity. Semi-quantitative data on the degree of atherosclerosis were available on the animals that died. There was only a crude positive correlation between the intensity of the arterial disease and high serum β-lipoprotein levels, and it was concluded that the latter are probably of only secondary importance in the development of spontaneous atherosclerosis in animals.