Variance In Reading Ability Research Articles

Eye movements are stable predictors of word reading ability in young readers

During the first years of formal instruction in reading, there are developmental changes to the characteristics of children’s eye movements that correspond to their progress. Generally, these changes are driven by improved text processing and a shift from reliance on sub-lexical to lexical processes. Currently, however, little is known about to what extent early eye movements during reading in ecological contexts account for variations in later word reading ability. In this paper we investigate this association in 164 children in first grade and 206 children in second grade. We recorded their eye movements during normal text passage reading in an unrestricted eye tracking set-up. We analyzed to what extent they account for variation in word reading ability 1 year post-recording, and make comparisons to concurrent predictions. Regression analysis revealed that eye movements accounted for approximately 60% of the variance in concurrent word reading ability and approximately 48% 1 year later. Mean fixation duration explained unique variance in reading ability and largely drives the correlation. Proportion of regressions was not a significant longitudinal predictor among the youngest readers. The difference between the concurrent and longitudinal predictions was greatest in the younger children, which was in line with our expectation. Findings are discussed in relation to current models of word reading. Our results suggest that eye movements are stable predictors of word reading ability. Ultimately, knowledge of what can be gleaned from early readers’ natural eye movements about later word reading ability could help inform assessments of reading development in the educational setting, where the presence of digital assessment tools is growing.

Reading ability in children relates to rhythm perception across modalities

The onset of reading ability is rife with individual differences, with some children termed “early readers” and some falling behind from the very beginning. Reading skill in children has been linked to an ability to remember nonverbal rhythms, specifically in the auditory modality. It has been hypothesized that the link between rhythm skills and reading reflects a shared reliance on the ability to extract temporal structure from sound. Here we tested this hypothesis by investigating whether the link between rhythm memory and reading depends on the modality in which rhythms are presented. We tested 75 primary school-aged children aged 7–11 years on a within-participants battery of reading and rhythm tasks. Participants received a reading efficiency task followed by three rhythm tasks (auditory, visual, and audiovisual). Results showed that children who performed poorly on the reading task also performed poorly on the tasks that required them to remember and repeat back nonverbal rhythms. In addition, these children showed a rhythmic deficit not just in the auditory domain but also in the visual domain. However, auditory rhythm memory explained additional variance in reading ability even after controlling for visual memory. These results suggest that reading ability and rhythm memory rely both on shared modality-general cognitive processes and on the ability to perceive the temporal structure of sound.

Individual differences in statistical learning predict children's reading ability in a semi-transparent orthography

Learning to read is a milestone in a child's life, and reading ability is a strong predictor of academic outcomes. Some studies have revealed that individual differences in the capacity for implicit statistical learning are linked with children's reading skills in English, which has a deep orthography, but we do not know whether the same relation is found in semi-transparent orthographies such as Norwegian. Additionally, the relative contribution of statistical learning alongside other cognitive measures known to be related to reading has not been examined. This study of sixty-five Norwegian school children (M = 10.3 years) found that performance on an independent statistical learning task predicted a small, but unique amount of variance in reading ability in Norwegian, even when a number of other reading-related cognitive skills were taken into account. This suggests that children's implicit learning of statistical regularities is associated with proficiency with written language in a semi-transparent orthography such as Norwegian.

Verbal fluency in relation to reading ability in students with and without dyslexia

ABSTRACTVerbal fluency tasks, in which participants generate words during a set time, have been used in research and assessments of neurobiological disorders and impairments. Research on verbal fluency in dyslexia has shown impaired performance in semantic and letter fluency. However, studies report inconsistent results, and action fluency has not been examined in dyslexia. Current research has mainly examined verbal fluency in relation to executive functions, vocabulary, and phonological processing. The present study examined performance on letter, semantic, and action fluency in relation to reading ability in 42 students in higher education, of which 16 had developmental dyslexia and 26 had typical reading development. It was examined if verbal fluency can predict variance in reading ability when group, phonological awareness, and rapid automatized naming are controlled for. Results showed impaired verbal fluency in the developmental dyslexia group. Action fluency and group were significant predictors of reading ability, together explaining 73% of the variance, in a backward elimination regression analysis. The results point to a possible, unique connection between action fluency and reading ability; this connection is discussed based on their neurocognitive underpinnings.

The Reading Efficiency Model

The purpose of the present study was twofold: First, the authors investigated if an extended version of the component model of reading (CMR; Model 2), including decoding rate and oral vocabulary comprehension, accounted for more of the variance in reading comprehension than the commonly used measures of the cognitive factors in the CMR. Second, the authors investigated the fitness of a new model, titled the reading efficiency model (REM), which deviates from earlier models regarding how reading is defined. In the study, 780 Norwegian students from Grades 6 and 10 were recruited. Here, hierarchical regression analyses showed that the extended model did not account for more of the variance in reading comprehension than the traditional CMR model (Model 1). In the second part of the study the authors used structural equation modeling (SEM) to explore the REM. The results showed that the REM explained an overall larger amount of variance in reading ability, compared to Model 1 and Model 2. This result is probably the result of the new definition of reading applied in the REM. The authors believe their model will more fully reflects students’ differentiated reading skills by including reading fluency in the definition of reading.

How Simple is the Simple View of Reading?

According to the Simple View of Reading, reading ability can be divided into decoding and language comprehension. In the present study, decoding and comprehension's contribution to reading ability was studied both in children with reading difficulties and in children with typical reading ability. Decoding and comprehension was further divided into sub-components, and the contribution from non-verbal ability and general processing speed was also studied. The results demonstrated that decoding made the largest contribution to reading ability for children with reading difficulties, while language comprehension contributed the most for children with typical reading ability. The contribution of non-verbal ability was not significant, and general processing speed only made a significant contribution to decoding for typical children. The two factors in the Simple View of Reading, decoding and comprehension, together explained less of the variance in reading ability for children with reading difficulties than for children with typical reading ability.

Statistical Learning Is Related to Reading Ability in Children and Adults

There is little empirical evidence showing a direct link between a capacity for statistical learning (SL) and proficiency with natural language. Moreover, discussion of the role of SL in language acquisition has seldom focused on literacy development. Our study addressed these issues by investigating the relationship between SL and reading ability in typically developing children and healthy adults. We tested SL using visually presented stimuli within a triplet learning paradigm and examined reading ability by administering the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-4; Wilkinson & Robertson, 2006). A total of 38 typically developing children (mean age of 9;5 years, range 6;4-12;5) and 37 healthy adults (mean age of 21 years, range 18-34) were assessed. In children, SL was significantly related to reading ability. Importantly, this relationship was independent of grade and also age. The adult data, too, revealed that SL was significantly related to reading ability. A regression analysis of the combined child and adult data revealed that SL accounted for a unique amount of variance in reading ability, after age and attention had been taken into consideration. For the first time, this study provides empirical evidence that a capacity for more effective SL is related to higher reading ability in the general population.

Component Processes Subserving Rapid Automatized Naming in Dyslexic and Non‐dyslexic Readers

The current study investigated which time components of rapid automatized naming (RAN) predict group differences between dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers (matched for age and reading level), and how these components relate to different reading measures. Subjects performed two RAN tasks (letters and objects), and data were analyzed through a response time analysis. Our results demonstrated that impaired RAN performance in dyslexic readers mainly stem from enhanced inter-item pause times and not from difficulties at the level of post-access motor production (expressed as articulation rates). Moreover, inter-item pause times account for a significant proportion of variance in reading ability in addition to the effect of phonological awareness in the dyslexic group. This suggests that non-phonological factors may lie at the root of the association between RAN inter-item pauses and reading ability. In normal readers, RAN performance was associated with reading ability only at early ages (i.e. in the reading-matched controls), and again it was the RAN inter-item pause times that explain the association.

Visual temporal processing in dyslexia and the magnocellular deficit theory: The need for speed?

A controversial question in reading research is whether dyslexia is associated with impairments in the magnocellular system and, if so, how these low-level visual impairments might affect reading acquisition. This study used a novel chromatic flicker perception task to specifically explore temporal aspects of magnocellular functioning in 40 children with dyslexia and 42 age-matched controls (aged 7-11). The relationship between magnocellular temporal resolution and higher-level aspects of visual temporal processing including inspection time, single and dual-target (attentional blink) RSVP performance, go/no-go reaction time, and rapid naming was also assessed. The Dyslexia group exhibited significant deficits in magnocellular temporal resolution compared with controls, but the two groups did not differ in parvocellular temporal resolution. Despite the significant group differences, associations between magnocellular temporal resolution and reading ability were relatively weak, and links between low-level temporal resolution and reading ability did not appear specific to the magnocellular system. Factor analyses revealed that a collective Perceptual Speed factor, involving both low-level and higher-level visual temporal processing measures, accounted for unique variance in reading ability independently of phonological processing, rapid naming, and general ability.

Auditory brainstem measures predict reading and speech-in-noise perception in school-aged children

Reading and speech-in-noise perception, fundamental aspects of human communication, have been linked to neural indices of auditory brainstem function. However, how these factors interact is currently unclear. Multivariate analysis methods (structural equation modeling) were employed to delineate and quantify the relationships among factors that relate to successful reading and speech in noise perception in children. Neural measures of subcortical speech encoding that reflect the utilization of stimulus regularities, differentiation of stop consonants, and robustness of neural synchrony predicted 73% of the variance in reading scores. A different combination of neural measures, specifically, utilization of stimulus regularities, strength of encoding of lower harmonics, and the extent of noise-induced timing delays uniquely predicted 56% of the variance in speech-in-noise perception measures. The neural measures relating to reading and speech-in-noise perception were substantially non-overlapping and resulted in poor fitting models when substituted for each other, thereby suggesting distinct neural signatures for the two skills. When phonological processing and working memory measures were added to the models, brainstem measures still uniquely predicted variance in reading ability and speech-in-noise perception, highlighting the robustness of the relationship between subcortical auditory function and these skills. The current study suggests that objective neural markers may prove valuable in the assessment of reading or speech-in-noise abilities in children.

Rapid serial naming and reading ability: the role of lexical access

Rapid serial naming tasks are frequently used to explain variance in reading skill. However, the construct being measured by rapid naming is yet undetermined. The Phonological Processing theory suggests that rapid naming relates to reading because of similar demands of access to long-term stored phonological representations of visual stimuli. Some researchers have argued that isolated or discrete-trial naming is a more precise measure of lexical access than serial naming, thus it is likely that any shared variance between these two formats can be attributed to similar lexical access demands. The present study examined whether there remained any variance in reading ability that could be uniquely explained by the rapid naming task while controlling for isolated naming. Structural equation modeling was used to examine these relations within the context of the phonological processing model. Results indicated that serial naming uniquely predicted reading, and the relation was stronger with isolated naming controlled for, suggesting that isolated naming functioned as a suppressor variable in the relation of serial naming with reading.

The Contribution of Visual Sensitivity, Phonological Processing, and Nonverbal IQ to Children's Reading

It has been suggested that the differences observed for dyslexic readers compared to normal readers on tasks measuring visual sensitivity may simply be the result of differences between the two groups in general cognitive ability and/or attentional engagement. One common way to accommodate this proposal is to match normal and dyslexic readers on IQ. However, an explicit test of this suggestion is to take normal and dyslexic readers who differ on IQ—where IQ would be expected to explain reading ability—and determine if visual sensitivity can still account for reading skill, even when IQ is taken into account. In this study we explored the relative contributions of nonverbal IQ, visual sensitivity as measured by sensitivity to the frequency doubling illusion, and phonological and irregular word reading to reading ability. Visual sensitivity explained a significant amount of variance in reading ability, over and above nonverbal IQ, accounting for 6% of the unique variance in reading ability. Moreover, visual sensitivity was related primarily to irregular word reading rather than to nonsense word decoding. This study demonstrates that low-level visual sensitivity plays an intrinsic role in reading aptitude, even when IQ differences between normal and dyslexic readers are contrived to maximize the contribution of IQ to reading skill. These results challenge the suggestion that impaired visual sensitivity may be epiphenomenal to poor reading skills.

The Contribution of Visual Sensitivity, Phonological Processing, and Nonverbal IQ to Children's Reading

It has been suggested that the differences observed for dyslexic readers compared to normal readers on tasks measuring visual sensitivity may simply be the result of differences between the two groups in general cognitive ability and/or attentional engagement. One common way to accommodate this proposal is to match normal and dyslexic readers on IQ. However, an explicit test of this suggestion is to take normal and dyslexic readers who differ on IQ—where IQ would be expected to explain reading ability—and determine if visual sensitivity can still account for reading skill, even when IQ is taken into account. In this study we explored the relative contributions of nonverbal IQ, visual sensitivity as measured by sensitivity to the frequency doubling illusion, and phonological and irregular word reading to reading ability. Visual sensitivity explained a significant amount of variance in reading ability, over and above nonverbal IQ, accounting for 6% of the unique variance in reading ability. Moreover, visual...

Rhythm and reading development in school‐age children: a longitudinal study

Rhythm production in 53 children in grade 1 was investigated as a predictor of reading ability in the same children in grades 1–5. This paper reports the results of correlations and hierarchical regression analyses, controlling for shared variance between phonological awareness and naming speed. Rhythm was correlated significantly with both phonological awareness and naming speed. Rhythm predicted significant variance in reading ability at each grade level. Once phonological awareness was controlled, however, rhythm was a significant predictor only in grade 5. When naming speed was controlled, rhythm predicted unique variance in reading ability in grades 2, 3 and 5. Implications for the relationship between rhythm and the development of reading skills are discussed.

When Is Reading Also Writing: Sources of Individual Differences on the New Reading Performance Assessments

This research examined component processes that contribute to performance on one of the new, standards-based reading tests that have become a staple in many states. Participants were 60 Grade 4 students randomly sampled from 7 classrooms in a rural school district. The particular test we studied employed a mixture of traditional (multiple-choice) and performance assessment approaches (constructed-response items that required written responses). Our findings indicated that multiple-choice and constructed-response items enlisted different cognitive skills. Writing ability emerged as an important source of individual differences in explaining overall reading ability, but its influence was limited to performance on constructed-response items. After controlling for word identification and listening, writing ability accounted for no variance in multiple-choice reading scores. By contrast, writing ability accounted for unique variance in reading ability, even after controlling for word identification and listening skill, and explained more variance in constructed-response reading scores than did either word identification or listening skill. In addition, performance on the multiple-choice reading measure along with writing ability accounted for nearly all of the reliable variance in performance on the constructed-response reading measure.

Phonemic awareness and reading ability: an investigation with young readers who are deaf.

The study examined the relationship between phonemic awareness and reading ability in students who are deaf. The research questions were: (a) What is the relationship between phonemic awareness and reading ability in students who are deaf? (b) Does phonemic awareness facilitate the reading development of these students? Participants were 29 children of primary school age enrolled in a residential school for students who are deaf. The dependent variable, reading ability, was measured by a retelling task. The independent variables were age, language ability, and phonemic awareness. Language ability was determined through expert analysis of participant interviews. Phonemic awareness was measured with a word-to-word matching task. Descriptive techniques and multiple regression analysis were employed to analyze the data. Results indicated that reading ability was significantly correlated to language ability, but not to phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness did not contribute to any of the variance in reading ability. The study results call into question the role of phonemic awareness as a prerequisite for reading development.

Computer‐based cognitive assessment and the development of reading

This paper reports on a longitudinal study using the computer‐based cognitive assessment system CoPS, and considers the applicability of this system in the early identification of cognitive strengths and limitations that affect the development of reading. CoPS comprises eight tests of basic cognitive abilities, including phonological awareness, auditory discrimination, and short‐term visual and auditory‐verbal memory. A total of 421 children participated in the study. Assessment with the CoPS tests was carried out at age 5 years, and follow‐up assessments using conventional tests of reading and general ability were carried out at 6 and 8 years of age.Correlations between the CoPS tests administered at age 5 and reading ability at age 8 were in the region of 0.6 for auditory‐verbal memory and phonological awareness, and in the region of 0.3 for the CoPS measure of auditory discrimination as well as most of the other memory measures. Stepwise linear regression analyses showed that the CoPS tests of auditory‐verbal memory and phonological awareness administered at age 5 together accounted for 50% of the variance in reading ability at age 8, compared with only 29% of the variance being attributable to intelligence. It was concluded that short‐term memory is an important predictor variable for reading, in addition to the more generally acknowledged variable of phonological processing.Discriminant function analysis showed that CoPS tests provide a highly satisfactory prediction of poor reading skills, with very low or zero rates for false positives and false negatives. By contrast, a word recognition test given at age 6 was not found to predict reading at age 8 to the same degree of accuracy, resulting in an unsatisfactory false positive rate of 21%. Measures of verbal and nonverbal ability at age 6 produced unacceptably high false positive rates between 50% and 70%. These findings are discussed in relation to the prediction of children at risk of reading failure. The potential of computer‐based cognitive profiling for facilitating differentiated teaching in early reading is also considered.

The Connection Between Reaction Time and Variation in Reading Ability: Unravelling Covariance Relationships With Cognitive Ability and Phonological Sensitivity

Eighty-one adult participants varying in reading ability completed two choice reaction time (RT) tasks (one auditory and one visual) in conjunction with measures of phonological awareness, general cognitive ability, and word recognition ability. Replicating previous work, a significant correlation between RT and reading ability was obtained. However, several different methods of examining overlapping variance (hierarchical regression, path analysis, commonality analysis) indicated that the zero-order correlation between RT and word recognition ability was largely due to variance shared with phonological awareness and general cognitive ability. RT explained little variance in reading ability after phonological sensitivity had been partialed out and almost no unique variance after phonological sensitivity and general cognitive ability had been partialed out. In addition, the overlap in the variance of RT and phonological processing was almost entirely due to variance shared with intelligence.

The Contribution of Analogical Problem Solving and Phonemic Awareness to Children's Ability to Make Orthographic Analogies when Reading

ABSTRACT A review of current literature into children's use of orthographic analogies during reading results in an apparent contradiction: that normal readers’ ability to draw such analogies is not predicted by their prior phonological awareness (Muteret al., 1994), rather by their reading experience and proficiency (Bowey and Underwood, 1996), but that dyslexic children are less able to draw these analogies because of theirlack of phonological awareness (Hanleyet al., 1997). It is suggested that in the absence of extensive reading experience, a combination of analogous problem‐solving ability and phonological awareness may be necessary for the successful use of orthographic analogies during reading. To assess this possibility, 70 children of limited reading experience and ability were assessed on phonemic awareness, their ability to make visual analogies and use orthographic analogies when reading. Phonemic awareness was able to account for 14% of the variance in reading ability. Phonemic awareness also accounted for 40% of the variance in children's orthographic analogy scores, and the ability to make visual analogies accounted for another 5%. It was also found that the ability to make orthographic analogies does not account for variance in reading ability scores once phonemic awareness has been taken into account.

Explaining the variance in reading ability in terms of psychological processes: What have we learned?

After years of confusion, the literature on individual differences in reading ability is finally beginning to coalesce around a small set of general conclusions that are endorsed by the vast majority of researchers. The most fundamental is that word decoding ability accounts for a very large proportion of the variance in reading ability at all levels. Variation in word decoding skill is primarily the result of differences in phonological abilities, rather than visual processes. Less-skilled readers are not characterized by a general inability to use context to facilitate word recognition. However, situations where such readers fail to utilize context to facilitate word recognition will arise when their slow and inaccurate decoding of words renders the context useless. Less-skilled readers display performance deficits on a wide variety of short-term memory tasks, probably due to an inability to efficiently employ various memory strategies, and most certainly due to inadequate phonological coding. Less-skilled readers may have comprehension deficits that are partially independent of word decoding skill. These problems probably arise because syntactic abilities and metacognitive strategies are inadequately developed.