Vaccine Distribution Research Articles

Long-COVID Prevalence and Its Association with Health Outcomes in the Post-Vaccine and Antiviral-Availability Era.

Background and Objectives: After recovering from COVID-19, patients may experience persistent symptoms, known as post-COVID-19 syndrome or long COVID, which include a range of continuing health problems. This research explores the prevalence, associated factors, and overall health outcomes of long COVID during a period of extensive vaccination and antiviral treatment availability in Thailand. Materials and Methods: This observational study involved 390 adult patients with COVID-19 between January and March 2022. Beginning three months after their diagnosis, these patients were interviewed via telephone every three months for a period of one year. The data collection process included gathering demographic information and administering a standardized questionnaire that addressed the patients' physical condition following COVID-19, their mental health, sleep disturbances, and overall quality of life. Results: The cohort consisted of 390 participants, with an average age of 31.8 ± 13.6. Among them, 96.7% (n = 377) were vaccinated, and 98.2% (n = 383) underwent antiviral treatment. Long-COVID prevalence was observed at 77.7%, with the most frequently reported symptoms being fatigue (64.1%) and cough (43.9%). Regarding mental health, depression was reported by 8.2% of the participants, anxiety by 4.1%, and poor sleep quality by 33.3%. Advanced statistical analysis using multivariable logistic regression showed significant links between long-COVID symptoms and patients aged below 60 (p = 0.042), as well as the initial symptom of cough (p = 0.045). In the subset of long-COVID sufferers, there was a notable correlation in females with symptoms such as headaches (p = 0.001), dizziness (p = 0.007), and brain fog (p = 0.013). Conclusions: Despite the extensive distribution of vaccines and antiviral therapies, the prevalence of long COVID remains high, being associated particularly with individuals under 60 and those exhibiting a cough as an early symptom. The study further reveals that mental health issues related to long COVID are profound, going beyond the scope of physical symptomatology.

Overcoming barriers to COVID‐19 herd immunity in Afghanistan

AbstractAfghanistan faces numerous obstacles in its endeavor to achieve herd immunity against COVID‐19. Inadequate resources, vaccine hesitancy, and the new government's lack of international recognition have impeded the country and harmed vaccine procurement and distribution. Although the recent power shift has led to a more secure situation, the country's vaccination coverage remains at 44.05% as of November 26, 2023. The main hurdles to herd immunity include limited vaccine accessibility, extensive vaccine hesitancy, an inefficient cold chain system causing high vaccine wastage rates, substandard service delivery, recent restrictions on women's healthcare access, low health literacy, and a weakened economy owing to decades of conflict and international sanctions. This article assesses vaccination progress, and herd immunity barriers, and provides solutions to overcome them in Afghanistan. A comprehensive approach is required, which involves enhancing public awareness of the benefits of vaccination, debunking vaccine‐related misconceptions through the media, expanding vaccine accessibility especially in remote areas, increasing vaccination personnel, promoting the cold chain and delivery system, reversing the ban on women's education and employment, boosting the economy, and increasing the inflow of humanitarian aid by lifting international sanctions. Successfully implementing these measures can help Afghanistan overcome obstacles to herd immunity, leading the country toward a safer and healthier future.

Strategies to increase vaccine coverage in brazilian territory

The Brazilian National Immunization Program (PNI), created in 1973, is a comprehensive and successful vaccination program, providing vaccines free of charge to all citizens, regardless of age, income, or place of residence. It maintains a vaccination schedule aimed at achieving high immunization rates against various diseases. However, it faces challenges such as misinformation, anti-vaccine movements, distrust in health authorities, difficulties in access, and interruptions in vaccine distribution, which have led to a decline in vaccination rates. To reverse this trend, several strategies can be adopted, adapted to the local context. This includes knowledge of the territory, vaccination campaigns, vaccination units, home visits and active patient outreach, Health Education in the school environment, public-private partnerships, effective communication, electronic records, ongoing education for healthcare professionals, identification of high-risk groups, and awareness campaigns. These strategies should be implemented in coordination, taking into account the characteristics of each territory. Collaboration between the government, healthcare professionals, schools, and the community is essential to ensure the protection of the population against infectious diseases. Strengthening vaccination is crucial for promoting public health and preventing outbreaks of preventable diseases in Brazil.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) and Intention to Recommend RSV Vaccination: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Cardiologists and Cardiac Nurses in Southern Italy.

As respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine distribution gains traction in Europe and Italy, healthcare workers (HCWs) can strategize about vaccine promotion to increase uptake among patients at risk of RSV consequences, such cardiac patients. This cross-sectional survey investigated the knowledge about and attitude towards RSV and RSV vaccines, and the intention to recommend vaccination within a cardiological hospital in Italy. To explore factors associated with the outcomes of interest, multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted. Of 197 invited HCWs, 78.2% returned the survey. The knowledge about market authorisation for new RSV vaccines for older adults (present in 46.9% of respondents) was significantly associated with the HCWs' age, education, and previous update on vaccinations. HCWs with a higher educational level and those with a positive attitude towards RSV vaccines safety reported a higher attitude towards the importance of vaccinating people at risk. The willingness of recommending RSV vaccination to patients (70.5% of respondents) was more likely in HCWs who were knowledgeable about market authorisation for RSV vaccines and in physicians. This tempestive research sheds light on current factors influencing the strategies of cardiac HCWs regarding RSV vaccination. The results suggest the need for training events on the protective role of RSV vaccination in cardiac patients.

Estimating the Flood, Landslide, and Heavy Rainfall Susceptibility of Vaccine Transportation after 2021 Flooding in South Kalimantan Province, Indonesia

Vaccine accessibility and availability has been shown to be one of the key factors to ensure rapid responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Increased vaccine coverage is, however, dependent on vaccine supply and transportation, in particular ensuring that road networks have as minimal disruption as possible. In Indonesia, the most common and imminent threats affecting transport flows are due to frequent disasters such as floods, landslides, and high rainfall. This research is novel because it fills in the gap between health and disaster studies in COVID-19-related studies published since 2021. This study presents an analysis of susceptibility of various hydro-meteorological disasters on the trans-provincial roads that span over 856.014 km and cover an area of 38,744.23 km2 over 13 districts in South Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. The floods that occurred in January and November 2021 inundated an area of around 4000 km2 (10 percent of the total study area) that spans along 13 sub-provincial/district areas. Data collected are analyzed using the geographical information system (GIS) to quantify and classify the impacts in the 13 districts, utilizing different indicators such as topography, road conditions and characteristics, amount of rainfall, and types of disasters that occurred (floods and landslides). The results show that the trans-provincial road, which is also the only road available for transporting vaccines in the South Kalimantan Province, was highly susceptible to various hydro-meteorological disasters. Around 20 percent of the total road length was disrupted by the floods, close to 4% of the road section passes through mountainous areas that make it susceptible to landslides, and about 13% to 23% of the road section is vulnerable to slip risks due to the extreme rainfall. The results presented here demand an overarching solution involving multiple stakeholders from public works and local disaster management offices in terms of disaster mitigation and preparedness strategies, and environmental protection in terms of disaster risk reduction implementation. This research contributes to the health sector particularly through future preparedness to pandemics and wider vaccine distribution and coverage through the identification and mapping of sections of roads impacted by multiple disasters.

Optimal distribution and waste management of Covid-19 vaccines from vaccination centers’ satisfaction perspective – A fuzzy time window-based VRP

Due to the unforeseen outcomes of the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the adoption of essential policies and tactics to implement public vaccination programs has gained attention worldwide. Statistics indicate that medical waste production is growing dramatically, posing a major risk to both individuals and the environment if not properly handled. In this context, we present a sustainable fuzzy multi-objective, multi-period, multi-product, and location-allocation model that considers both the vaccine distribution phase and the medical waste management process. The model addresses the capacitated and multi-depot vehicle routing problem (VRP) with heterogeneous vehicles. Moreover, as a new social aspect from vaccination centers’ perspective, a fuzzy version of the time-window is considered in the model to integrate both satisfaction level and priority of the nodes that must be visited. Subsequently, the augmented ε-constraint, TH method, and LP-Metric approach are utilized to solve the proposed multi-objective model. To provide empirical support for the model’s input parameters and evaluate the effectiveness of the solution strategies, data for a medical supply chain network (MSCN) in Iran is used. The results demonstrate that shifting the vaccination centers’ desired time to be serviced might be a suitable solution to stop the emission rate from increasing or the satisfaction levels from falling.

Assortative mixing of opinions about COVID-19 vaccination in personal networks

Many countries worldwide had difficulties reaching a sufficiently high vaccination uptake during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given this context, we collected data from a panel of 30,000 individuals, which were representative of the population of Romania (a country in Eastern Europe with a low 42.6% vaccination rate) to determine whether people are more likely to be connected to peers displaying similar opinions about COVID-19 vaccination. We extracted 443 personal networks, amounting to 4430 alters. We estimated multilevel logistic regression models with random-ego-level intercepts to predict individual opinions about COVID-19 vaccination. Our evidence indicates positive opinions about the COVID-19 vaccination cluster. Namely, the likelihood of having a positive opinion about COVID-19 vaccination increases when peers have, on average, a more positive attitude than the rest of the nodes in the network (OR 1.31, p < 0.001). We also found that individuals with higher education and age are more likely to hold a positive opinion about COVID-19 vaccination. With the given empirical data, our study cannot reveal whether this assortative mixing of opinions is due to social influence or social selection. However, it may nevertheless have implications for public health interventions, especially in countries that strive to reach higher uptake rates. Understanding opinions about vaccination can act as an early warning system for potential outbreaks, inform predictions about vaccination uptake, or help supply chain management for vaccine distribution.

Digital Twin Fundamentals of mRNA In Vitro Transcription in Variable Scale Toward Autonomous Operation.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused the rapid development of mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) vaccines and new RNA-based therapeutic methods. However, the approval rate for candidates has the potential to be increased, with a significant number failing so far due to efficacy, safety, and manufacturing deficiencies, hindering equitable vaccine distribution during pandemics. This study focuses on optimizing the production of mRNA, a critical component of mRNA-based vaccines, using a scalable machine by investigating the key mechanisms of mRNA in vitro transcription. First, kinetic parameters for the mRNA production process were determined. The validity of the determination and the robustness of the model are demonstrated by predicting different reactions with and without substrate limitations as well as different transcripts. The optimized reaction conditions, including temperature, urea concentration, and concentration of reaction-enhancing additives, resulted in a 55% increase in mRNA yield with a 33% reduction in truncated mRNA. Additionally, the feasibility of a segmented flow approach allowed for high-throughput screening (HTS), enabling the production of 20 vaccine candidates within a short time frame, representing a 10-fold increase in productivity, compared to nonsegmented reactions limited by the residence time in the plug flow reactor. The findings presented for the first time here contribute to the development of a fully continuous and efficient manufacturing process for mRNA and other cell and gene therapy drugs/vaccine candidates as presented in our previous work, which discussed the integration of process analytical technologies and predictive process models in a Biopharma 4.0 facility to enable the production of clinical and large-scale doses, ensuring a rapid and resilient supply of critical therapeutics. The results in this study especially highlight that the same machine and equipment can be used for screening and manufacturing different drug candidates in continuous operation. By streamlining production and adhering to quality standards, this approach enhances the industry's ability to respond swiftly to pandemics and public health emergencies, addressing the urgent need for accessible and effective vaccines.

Strategic Planning of a Joint SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza Vaccination Campaign in the UK.

The simultaneous administration of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccines is being carried out for the first time in the UK and around the globe in order to mitigate the health, economic, and societal impacts of these respiratory tract diseases. However, a systematic approach for planning the vaccine distribution and administration aspects of the vaccination campaigns would be beneficial. This work develops a novel multi-product mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) vaccine supply chain model that can be used to plan and optimise the simultaneous distribution and administration of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccines. The outcomes from this study reveal that the total budget required to successfully accomplish the SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccination campaigns is equivalent to USD 7.29 billion, of which the procurement costs of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccines correspond to USD 2.1 billion and USD 0.83 billion, respectively. The logistics cost is equivalent to USD 3.45 billion, and the costs of vaccinating individuals, quality control checks, and vaccine shipper and dry ice correspond to USD 1.66, 0.066, and 0.014, respectively. The analysis of the results shows that the choice of rolling out the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine during the vaccination campaign can have a significant impact not only on the total vaccination cost but also on vaccine wastage rate.

What COVID-19 Vaccine Distribution Disparity Reveals About Solidarity

What COVID-19 Vaccine Distribution Disparity Reveals About Solidarity

Evaluation of Vaccine Stock Management at the Karanganyar Regency Health Service Indonesia

Vaccines are very susceptible to damage, so vaccine management requires special handling, this is done to maintain vaccine quality. The aim of this research is to find out the description and evaluate suitability vaccine management at the Karanganyar Regency Health Service (DKK) in 2022 based on Minister of Health Regulation No. 12 of 2017. This research is a qualitative descriptive non-experimental research. These research methods cross sectional by using approach, observation or data collection. The sampling technique uses accidental sampling by reviewing and evaluating vaccine management, which includes planning, procurement, receipt, storage, and distribution at the Karanganyar Health Service. The method used for data collection uses checklist suitability and in-depth interviews with the Head of Installation and pharmacy officers. Vaccine planning is adjusted to the usage index and needs in the previous year using a combined method system top to bottom and bottom up. Vaccine procurement is centralized at the Provincial Health Service, where requests are made by method bottom up. Receiving the vaccine is not immediate drop from the center/province, but the Karanganyar DKK takes the needed vaccines to the Provincial Health Service using the provisions for good drug distribution methods. Vaccine storage and distribution at DKK Karanganyar is in accordance with Minister of Health Regulation number 12 of 2017 and also in accordance with vaccine management guidelines from the Ministry of Health in 2021. Vaccines at DKK Karanganyar are in accordance with Minister of Health Regulation number 12 of 2017 and also in accordance with vaccine management guidelines from the Ministry of Health in 2021, both in planning, procurement, receipt, storage and distribution.

Evaluation of Vaccine Stock Management at the Karanganyar Regency Health Service Indonesia

Vaccines are very susceptible to damage, so vaccine management requires special handling, this is done to maintain vaccine quality. The aim of this research is to find out the description and evaluate suitability vaccine management at the Karanganyar Regency Health Service (DKK) in 2022 based on Minister of Health Regulation No. 12 of 2017. This research is a qualitative descriptive non-experimental research. These research methods cross sectional by using approach, observation or data collection. The sampling technique uses accidental sampling by reviewing and evaluating vaccine management, which includes planning, procurement, receipt, storage, and distribution at the Karanganyar Health Service. The method used for data collection uses checklist suitability and in-depth interviews with the Head of Installation and pharmacy officers. Vaccine planning is adjusted to the usage index and needs in the previous year using a combined method system top to bottom and bottom up. Vaccine procurement is centralized at the Provincial Health Service, where requests are made by method bottom up. Receiving the vaccine is not immediate drop from the center/province, but the Karanganyar DKK takes the needed vaccines to the Provincial Health Service using the provisions for good drug distribution methods. Vaccine storage and distribution at DKK Karanganyar is in accordance with Minister of Health Regulation number 12 of 2017 and also in accordance with vaccine management guidelines from the Ministry of Health in 2021. Vaccines at DKK Karanganyar are in accordance with Minister of Health Regulation number 12 of 2017 and also in accordance with vaccine management guidelines from the Ministry of Health in 2021, both in planning, procurement, receipt, storage and distribution.

Factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine uptake and hesitancy among healthcare workers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Vaccination is a critical intervention to reduce morbidity and mortality and limit strain on health systems caused by COVID-19. The slow pace of COVID-19 vaccination uptake observed in some settings raises concerns about COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. The Democratic Republic of the Congo experienced logistical challenges and low uptake at the start of vaccine distribution, leading to one of the lowest overall COVID-19 vaccine coverage rates in the world in 2021. This study assessed the magnitude and associated factors of COVID-19 vaccine uptake among healthcare workers (HCWs) in seven provinces in DRC. We implemented a cross-sectional Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) questionnaire targeting HCWs, administered by trained data collectors in Haut-Katanga, Kasaï Orientale, Kinshasa, Kongo Centrale, Lualaba, North Kivu, and South Kivu provinces. Data were summarized and statistical tests were performed to assess factors associated with vaccine uptake. HCWs across the seven provinces completed the questionnaire (N = 5,102), of whom 46.3% had received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine. Older age, being married, being a medical doctor, being a rural resident, and having access to or having previously worked in a COVID-19 vaccination site were all strongly associated with vaccination uptake. Vaccinated individuals most frequently cited protection of themselves, their families, and their communities as motivations for being vaccinated, whereas unvaccinated individuals were most concerned about safety, effectiveness, and risk of severe side effects. The findings suggest an opinion divide between vaccine-willing and vaccine-hesitant HCWs. A multidimensional approach may be needed to increase the acceptability of the COVID-19 vaccine for HCWs. Future vaccine campaign messaging could center around the positive impact of vaccination on protecting friends, family, and the community, and also emphasize the safety and very low risk of adverse effects. These types of messages may further be useful when planning future immunization campaigns with new vaccines.

The Impact COVID had on Carceral Institutions in the United States

The COVID-19 pandemic is something that affected, and continues to affect, the entire world. In the United States specifically, it impacted the nation majorly- so many people became infected and died, and there were numerous policies implemented to slow the spread. These policies mostly took place in the general population, but in the prison population, many inmates were not protected. Inmates have five times greater risk of COVID than citizens in the general population do. Carceral institutions in the United States are already known to treat many of their inmates inhumanely, but the COVID pandemic amplified the poor living conditions of the inmates. This paper gives an overview of how prisons functioned pre-pandemic, and then it goes into how federal, state, and local carceral institutions initially responded to the start of COVID. How inmates were treated and whether or not they were prioritized in vaccine distributions is discussed, and the impact the COVID virus had on correctional staff is discussed as well. The rise of lawsuits is also briefly explored. Ultimately, there is much variation in how different jurisdictions responded to the pandemic and how they continue to respond. [Article copies available for a fee from The Transformative Studies Institute. E-mail address: journal@transformativestudies.org Website: http://www.transformativestudies.org ©2024 by The Transformative Studies Institute. All rights reserved.]

Contrasting academic approaches to COVID-19 vaccine production and distribution: What can the Oxford and Texas experiences teach us about pandemic response?

This article contrasts the different approaches to COVID-19 vaccine development adopted by Oxford University, on one hand, and Texas Children's Hospital and Baylor College of Medicine (collectively, Texas), on the other hand. Texas was praised widely in the press and academic literature for adopting an "open source" approach to vaccine development. Oxford, however, chose to license its vaccine technology to pharmaceutical manufacturer AstraZeneca and received significant public criticism as a result. Yet the Oxford vaccine reached far more individuals in developing countries than the Texas vaccine. We compare the two vaccines' experiences, drawing attention to a constellation of interrelated elements that contribute to a successful vaccine production program, including not only IP licensing, but also timing, technology transfer, and resource mobilization, all in the context of the prevailing funding environments. This comparative analysis sheds light on how the innovation ecosystem functioned during the COVID-19 pandemic, providing useful insights for policy makers and advocates as they prepare for future pandemics and other global health challenges.

Cold chain evaluation of the immunization program in Primary Health Centers in 2022

Purpose: The major challenges of vaccination programs are associated with the vaccine cold chain management in primary health centers that must be evaluated. This paper discusses how vaccine cold chain management can address the challenges of vaccination programs in primary health centers. Specifically, it examines how the vaccine chain is managed. &#x0D; Methods: The design of this observational study was cross-sectional. Evaluations assessed in this study include input aspects, output aspects, process aspects, and outcome aspects of vaccine chain management. Observation methods and direct interviews with the evaluated vaccine chain staff collected primary data. &#x0D; Results: Management of the vaccine chain has been carried out properly with the support of human resources or immunization personnel who are in accordance with their competence, based on research results, the management staff are diploma graduates in nursing and midwifery. The defrosting process is carried out for a certain period, as well as using vaccine carriers and ice flasks, which are still good for vaccine distribution. It is very important to pay attention to the supply of the number and type of vaccines for the next month's needs at the public health center. &#x0D; Conclusion: The three key factors that guide the vaccine cold chain are educated vaccine control staff, vaccine storage, and delivery equipment, and efficient vaccine control procedures.

Ethics and strategy in vaccination: A review of public health policies and practices

The paper provides a succinct overview of the comprehensive review on Ethics and Strategy in Vaccination, exploring the intricate interplay between public health policies and practices. The review delves into the ethical considerations that underpin vaccination strategies, emphasizing the critical need for a balance between individual autonomy and the collective responsibility for public health. Examining a spectrum of vaccination policies, the review navigates through the complexities of decision-making, addressing issues such as vaccine mandates, informed consent, and the equitable distribution of vaccines. Within the framework of public health ethics, the review analyzes the ethical principles guiding vaccination strategies, including autonomy, beneficence, and justice. It explores how these principles are applied in formulating policies that aim to achieve widespread immunization while respecting individual rights. Additionally, the review delves into the global context, discussing the ethical implications of vaccine distribution on an international scale, especially in addressing disparities between developed and developing nations. Strategic considerations in vaccination, including communication strategies, public awareness campaigns, and community engagement, are integral aspects of the review. It assesses the ethical dimensions of communication strategies, ensuring transparency, trust-building, and the dissemination of accurate information to foster informed decision-making. The review underscores the inseparable connection between ethics and strategy in vaccination. It provides insights into the ethical dilemmas faced by policymakers, the principles guiding their decisions, and the strategic approaches employed to navigate the complex landscape of public health. This comprehensive analysis contributes to a nuanced understanding of the ethical foundations that underscore vaccination policies and practices, offering valuable insights for future policymaking and public health endeavors.

Disparities and effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccine policies in three representative European countries

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to examine the Coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19) vaccine policies disparities and effectiveness in Germany, Denmark and Bulgaria, with a view to providing lessons for global vaccination and response to possible outbreak risks.MethodsThis study analyzed big data through public information on the official websites of the Ministries of Health of the European Union, Germany, Denmark and Bulgaria and the official websites of the World Health Organization. We systematically summarized the COVID-19 vaccine policies of the three countries, and selected the following six indicators for cross-cutting vaccination comparisons: COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people, COVID-19 vaccination rate, the share of people with fully vaccinated, the share of people only partly vaccinated, cumulative confirmed COVID-19 cases per million, cumulative confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million. Meanwhile, we selected the following four indicators for measuring the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccine policy implementation: daily cases per million, daily deaths per million, the effective reproduction rate (Rt), the moving-average case fatality rate (CFR).ResultsAlthough these three EU countries had the same start time for vaccination, and the COVID-19 vaccine supply was coordinated by the EU, there are still differences in vaccination priorities, vaccination types, and vaccine appointment methods. Compared to Germany and Denmark, Bulgaria had the least efficient vaccination efforts and the worst vaccination coverage, with a vaccination rate of just over 30% as of June 2023, and the maximum daily deaths per million since vaccination began in the country was more than three times that of the other two countries. From the perspective of implementation effect, vaccination has a certain effect on reducing infection rate and death rate, but the spread of new mutant strains obviously aggravates the severity of the epidemic and reduces the effectiveness of the vaccine. Among them, the spread of the Omicron mutant strain had the most serious impact on the three countries, showing an obvious epidemic peak.ConclusionsExpanding vaccination coverage has played a positive role in reducing COVID-19 infection and mortality rates and stabilizing Rt. Priority vaccination strategies targeting older people and at-risk groups have been shown to be effective in reducing COVID-19 case severity and mortality in the population. However, the emergence and spread of new variant strains, and the relaxation of epidemic prevention policies, still led to multiple outbreaks peaking. In addition, vaccine hesitancy, mistrust in government and ill-prepared health systems are hampering vaccination efforts. Among the notable ones are divergent types of responses to vaccine safety issue could fuel mistrust and hesitancy around vaccination. At this stage, it is also necessary to continue to include COVID-19 vaccination in priority vaccination plans and promote booster vaccination to prevent severe illness and death. Improving the fairness of vaccine distribution and reducing the degree of vaccine hesitancy are the focus of future vaccination work.

COVID-19 vaccine distribution: A review of strategies in Africa and the USA

Amid the ongoing global efforts to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, equitable vaccine distribution has emerged as a critical challenge. This review explores the contrasting strategies employed in Africa and the USA to distribute COVID-19 vaccines, shedding light on the unique challenges and opportunities faced by each region. In Africa, where healthcare infrastructure and resources vary widely, the distribution strategy involves collaborations with international organizations, leveraging existing vaccination programs, and addressing logistical hurdles. The review emphasizes the importance of tailored approaches to suit the diverse contexts within the African continent. In contrast, the USA's vaccine distribution strategy reflects a mix of federal and state-level initiatives, with a focus on mass vaccination sites, community clinics, and partnerships with private entities. The review delves into the challenges faced by the USA, including supply chain issues and disparities in vaccine access, and examines the innovative measures adopted to overcome these hurdles. Additionally, it analyzes the role of technology and data-driven approaches in optimizing vaccine distribution efficiency in both regions. The comparative analysis highlights the significance of considering socio-economic, geographical, and infrastructural factors in crafting effective vaccine distribution strategies. By exploring the successes and shortcomings in Africa and the USA, this review aims to contribute valuable insights to the ongoing global discourse on optimizing COVID-19 vaccine distribution, fostering collaboration, and ensuring equitable access to vaccines across diverse healthcare landscapes.

Clinical and Preclinical Methods of Heat-Stabilization of Human Vaccines.

Vaccines have historically faced challenges regarding stability, especially in regions lacking a robust cold chain infrastructure. This review delves into established and emergent techniques to improve the thermostability of vaccines. We discuss the widely practiced lyophilization method, effectively transforming liquid vaccine formulations into a solid powdered state, enhancing storage and transportation ability. However, potential protein denaturation during lyophilization necessitates alternative stabilization methods. Cryoprotectants, namely, starch and sugar molecules, have shown promise in protecting vaccine antigens and adjuvants from denaturation and augmenting the stability of biologics during freeze-drying. Biomineralization, a less studied yet innovative approach, utilizes inorganic or organic-inorganic hybrids to encapsulate biological components of vaccines with a particular emphasis on metal-organic coordination polymers. Encapsulation in organic matrices to form particles or microneedles have also been studied in the context of vaccine thermostability, showing some ability to store outside the cold-chain. Unfortunately, few of these techniques have advanced to clinical trials that evaluate differences in storage conditions. Nonetheless, early trials suggest that alternative storage techniques are viable and emphasize the need for more comprehensive studies. This review underscores the pressing need for heat-stable vaccines, especially in light of the increasing global distribution challenges. Combining traditional methods with novel approaches holds promise for the future adaptability of vaccine distribution and use.