Utility Load Leveling Research Articles

Hydrogen-based rechargeable battery systems: Military, aerospace, and terrestrial applications—I. Nickel-hydrogen batteries

Abstract Eagle-Picher Industries currently has three hydrogen-based battery systems under development and in production, for a variety of military, aerospace, and terrestrial applications. These are the nickel-hydrogen (NiH 2 ), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and silver-metal hydride (AgMH) battery systems. Nickel-hydrogen batteries are the system of choice for both geostationery (GEO) and low-earth-orbit (LEO) communications and surveillance satellites. Eagle-Picher NiH 2 batteries have been in use in the aerospace industry for over 15 years and have accumulated more than 95,000,000 cell-hours in orbital spacecraft operation without a single failure. Cells have completed more than 88,000 accelerated LEO charge/discharge cycles and more than 30 eclipse seasons in GEO testing. Advanced NiH 2 batteries are currently being built for the Space Station Freedom program. This advanced aerospace technology is also being adapted to terrestrial applications such as remote location power systems, electric vehicles, utility load leveling, and the telecommunications industry. Two additional papers are planned. Part II of the series will cover aerospace and commercial nickel-metal hydride batteries and part III will concern the newly developed silver-metal hydride battery system.

Solar-assisted production of hydrogen and chlorine from hydrochloric acid using hexachloroiridate (III) and (IV)

Abstract The production of H 2 and Cl 2 from HCl solution is important in relation to commercial H 2 production, utility load leveling and solar energy storage. The production of H 2 from electrolysis and Cl 2 from photolysis of a 6M HCl solution containing IrCl 6 3 − /IrCl 6 2 − was investigated for this purpose. Using a 1 m 2 solar concentrator, the photolysis of IrCl 6 2 − was carried out, forming IrCl 6 3 − and converting aqueous Cl − ions to gaseous Cl 2 . The amount of IrCl 6 2 − destroyed under photolysis was established using light absorption at 425 nm; corresponding yields for formation of Cl 2 were inferred by stoichiometry. Electrolysis of the solution was carried out at a constant current density. During electrolysis the H 3 O + is reduced at the cathode to form H 2 , while IrCl 6 3 − formed during photolysis is oxidized back to IrCl 6 2 − at the anode. Electrolysis in the presence of the iridium complex proceeds at a lower voltage than the electrolysis of HCl solution itself. Formation of H 2 was inferred from Faraday's laws, as well as from a stoichiometric relationship with the amount of IrCl 6 2 − formed under electrolysis, which was again measured by light absorption at 425 nm. Overall, aqueous HCl/IrCl 6 3 − solutions form IrCl 6 2 − plus H 2 during electrolysis, whereas aqueous HCl/IrCl 6 2 − solutions form IrCl 6 3 − plus Cl 2 during photolysis.

Gas phase formation of hydrogen chloride by thermal chlorine-steam reaction

Electrolysis of HCl solution to form H 2 and Cl 2 is of interest in applications such as utility load leveling, solar energy storage and commercial hydrogen production. In the latter case, the chlorine generated must be reconverted to HCl for continued use in the process. The gas phase reaction of steam with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride plus oxygen was investigated for this purpose. Flowing systems with 2, 4 and 8 cm 3 min −1 of chlorine and 25 cm 3 min −1 of steam were studied from 563 to 873 K. The reactant/product mixture was quenched in 50 cm 3 of water at 298 K. The yield of HCl was determined by acid/base titration. After removal of HCl and residual chlorine using alkaline KI solution, oxygen was measured by use of a gas burette. The HCl and O 2 analyses were in agreement. Using a Cl 2 H 2 O mole ratio of 4 25 , conversion of chlorine was 24.4% at 563 K, 39.7% at 648 K, 53.1% at 773 K and 80.0% at 873 K. Strong photolysis at 563 and 648 K had no observed effect on the product yields. The experimentally determined ΔH value from plots of log( K p) vs 1 T is in good agreement with the ΔH value determined from standard thermochemical tables, for the reaction between chlorine and steam.

Development of Redox Flow Battery for Utility Load Leveling

A redox flow battery, one of the advanced batteries, has been in development since 1985 for the load-leveling of electrical power demand. A 10 kW class battery was successfully constructed and evaluated in 1986. At present, a 60 kW class battery system is under construction. To improve the system energy efficiency of this battery, several developing efforts have been done such as the scale up of the electrode area, membrane resistance reduction, a suitable design for piping and pumping system, etc. Preliminary test results have shown a high battery efficiency of 83% to 84%, and thus, a good system performance will be expected. This facility is to be installed at a sub-station of the Kansai Electric Power Company, Inc., and connected to a commercial power line for 500 cycle life test.

Coil Protection for a Utility Scale Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Plant

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is proposed for electric utility load leveling. Attractive costs, high diurnal energy efficiency (> 92%), and rapid response are advantages relative to other energy storage technologies. Recent industry-led efforts have produced a conceptual design for a 5000 MWh/1000 MW energy storage plant which is technically feasible at commercially attractive estimated costs. The SMES plant design includes a protection system which prevents damage to the magnetic coil if events require a rapid discharge of stored energy. This paper describes the design and operation of the coil protection system, which is primarily passive and uses the thermal capacity of the coil itself to absorb the stored electromagnetic energy.

Design advances in superconducting magnetic energy storage for electric utility load leveling

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) has been under study for electric utility energy storage application since the early 1970's. Major challenges have included structural design to accommodate large biaxial loads over a long lifetime, design of a conductor to carry high current, design of a reliable and passive coil protection system, design for conventional fabrication and construction methods, and system cost reduction. A SMES design concept, developed by the authors of this paper, includes technically feasible solutions to all the items listed above. Plans for full development and commercialization of this technology are being prepared.

A Feasible Utility Scale Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Plant

This paper presents the latest design features and estimated costs of a 5000 MWh/1000 MW Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) plant. SMES is proposed as a commercially viable technology for electric utility load leveling. The primary advantage of SMES over other electrical energy storage technologies is its high net roundtrip efficiency. Other features include rapid availability and low maintenance and operating costs. Economic comparisons are made with other energy storage options and with combustion turbines.

Application testing of batteries for utility load leveling and customer applications at the battery energy storage test (BEST) facility

The demand for electric energy varies hourly, daily, weekly, monthly and seasonally. A study of energy storage performed by Public Service Electric and

Advanced lead-acid batteries for electric utility load leveling

Advanced lead-acid batteries for electric utility load leveling

フライホイールの舶用機関への応用についての―試算

With the increased emphasis on energy conservation and fuel economy, the development of energy-storage devices has gained considerable momentum. Flywheelss have potential applications in various fixed-base applications, such as wind- and solar-energy generations and utility load leveling. The application of a flywheel energy storage system to marine engines is tentatively evaluated based on the current technology level, in particular, the size of rotors made of homogeneous metal alloys and of composite materials is determined for the gross tonnage of ships and their voyage distance. The flywheel on the ship, which is subjected to ocean waves and maneuvering, gives rise to the gyrodynamic effect. The influences of the reactions caused by this effect on the motion of the ship are analyzed.

Fast Ionic Transport in Solids

The discovery of inorganic solids with ionic conductivities comparable to those of aqueous electrolytes has revolutionized solid-state electrochemistry. Sodium beta alumina, a Na(+) conductor, and LixTiS(2), an intercalation compound with simultaneous Li(+) and electronic conductivity, are two of the best and most versatile fast ionic conductors. A wide variety of cations can replace Na(+) in beta alumina and Li(+) in LixTiS(2) and change the properties of the materials. Sodium beta alumina and LixTiS(2) are currently used in the development of high-energy density batteries for electric vehicles and electrical utility load leveling. Current research in solid ionic conductors is exploring new intercalation compounds, solid polymer electrolytes, and alkali ion and proton transport in crystalline solids.

Components-Batteries: today and tomorrow

Reviews some of the developments ranging from microwatts for liquid crystal displays to megawatts (soon) for utility load leveling.