Ustica Research Articles

The Ustica Tragedy in 1980 Italy: War in the Mediterranean?

On June 27 1980, during the night, a civil airplane (DC-9 Itavia) flying from Bologna to Palermo in Italy blew up and disappeared into the Mediterranean Sea next to Ustica island. All 81 passengers on board died. The most complete inquiry conducted by Judge Rosario Priore concluded in 1999 that the DC-9 accident “occurred following military interception activity”. It did not, however, identify any guilty party. In 2007 Francesco Cossiga, who was Prime Minister in 1980, declared that the DC-9 was mistakenly shot down by a French missile, so leading to the reopening of the case with new international information requests. More recently Giuliano Amato, a PSI leader and Prime Minister in 1992, partially confirmed Cossiga’s words, speaking about a NATO covert action aimed to strike a Libyan aircraft (because of the alleged presence of Qadhafi on board) which was hiding itself under the Italian civil airplane. More than forty years after the events, however, we still do not know exactly what the reasons underlying the tragedy were and which countries were guilty and the Ustica tragedy is still one of the biggest unsolved mysteries of Italy. The aim of the present paper is not, of course, that to reach a complete conclusion as to who is directly to blame for the tragedy. As an international historian, the aim of the author is instead to turn back to the events of that time trying to put together the many pieces of the puzzle and to provide a plausible international framework for the tragedy. It is not possible, in fact, to isolate what happened in Italy on June 27 1980 from the patchwork of international tension of that time (from Afghanistan and Iran to Middle East, North Africa and Malta just to mention the main arc of crisis) as well as from the traditional dual track of Italy’s foreign policy, the Atlantic one and the Mediterranean one. Keywords: Ustica, Italy, Libya, War, Cold War

Libyan deportees on the Italian island of Ustica: Remembering colonial deportations in the (peripheral) metropole

In 1911, the Italian liberal government launched the colonial occupation of what is now known as Libya, which was met with unexpected local resistance. The government resorted to mass deportations to the metropole to sedate the resistance, which continued for more than two decades under both the liberal and Fascist regimes. This chapter of Europe’s and Italy’s colonial history has been almost entirely removed from collective memory. The article explores the extent to which colonial deportations are remembered on the Sicilian Island of Ustica, which witnessed the deportation from Libya of more than 2000 people. Currently, the island is home to the only cemetery in Italy that is entirely dedicated to Libyan deportees. I argue that the visits of Libyan delegations, which took place from the late 1980s to 2010, succeeded in challenging colonial aphasia at the local level. Yet, as a result of Ustica’s peripheral position within the national space, the memory work developed through the encounter between local and Libyan actors remained marginal, despite its potential to redefine the Mediterranean as a symbolic space where colonial histories are articulated and remembered. Italy’s outsourcing of the memory work in relation to colonial deportations implies a missed opportunity to interrogate the postcolonial present and thus question persistent dynamics of power in Europe that exclude the constructed Other.

Unveiling a hidden fortification system at “Faraglioni” Middle Bronze Age Village of Ustica Island (Palermo, Italy) through ERT and GPR prospections

We carried out a geophysical research project in the Middle Bronze Age village of Ustica (Palermo, Sicily, Italy), named “Faraglioni Village” after the stack formations which detach from the coast north of the archaeological site. The investigation, which comprised Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) techniques, allowed us to discover the buried foundations of an outwork fortification system never evidenced by previous archaeological studies, only hypothesised from the observation of aerial photography and partially outcropping boulders, which align roughly parallel to the main defensive wall of the Village.Our geophysical prospection involved the entire 250 m-long arc of the outward village defensive wall, with the acquisition of eleven ERT profiles and 27 GPR scans. The techniques were selected based on both favourable logistics and methods applicability: ERT sections allowed us to trace a series of high-resistivity anomalies arranged to form an arc-shaped structure along the perimeter of the defensive wall. GPR investigation was localised in the most accommodating patch of terrain of the site, with the effort of intercepting clear enough sections of the target, to determine more accurately its shape, depth, and overall dimensions. Our discovery paves the way for new investigations, mainly aimed at defining the timing of construction of the fortification system, as well as the function of the remains of other architectural structures identified close to the wall, which could represent the target of further geophysical investigations.

Relative Sea-Level Rise Projections and Flooding Scenarios for 2150 CE for the Island of Ustica (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy)

The island of Ustica (Italy) is constantly exposed to the effects of sea-level rise, which is threatening its coastal zone. With the aim of assessing the sea levels that are anticipated by 2150 CE under the climatic projections shown in the AR6 report from the IPCC, a detailed evaluation of potential coastal flooding under different climatic scenarios and the ongoing land subsidence has been carried out for three coastal zones. Scenarios are based on the determination of the current coastline position, a high-resolution digital terrain and marine model, and the SSP1-2.6, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5 climatic projections. Relative sea-level rise projections allowed the mapping of the potential inundated surfaces for 2030, 2050, 2100, and 2150. The results show rising sea levels for 2150, ranging from a minimum of 66 ± 40 cm (IPCC AR6 SSP2.6 scenario) to a maximum of 128 ± 52 cm (IPCC AR6 SSP8.5 scenario). In such conditions, considering the SSP8.5 scenario during storm surges with return times (RTs) of 1 and 100 years, the expected maximum wave run-up along the island may vary from 3 m (RT = 1) to 14 m (RT = 100), according to the coastal morphology. Our results show that adaptation and mitigation actions are required to protect the touristic and harbor installations of the island.

R. Ross Holloway, 1934–2022

R. Ross Holloway, 1934–2022

Climate uncertainty and technological innovation shape investments in renewable energy for small off-grid islands

In this paper, we propose a methodological framework for assessing the influence of climate uncertainty and technological innovation on renewable investments in small off-grid islands.At the core of the framework, an energy system model calculates the system performance in terms of Present Value of Cost. Through reiterate simulation of the model under different system designs, including photovoltaic, wind turbines, and wave energy converters, and future scenarios, the framework allows to identify the key climate drivers and technological parameters of system performance, and the most robust investments. The framework is demonstrated in the case study of Ustica Island, Italy.Results highlight wind speed as the key climate driver affecting system performance. The effects of technological innovation are instead strictly dependent on the technology considered and the level of risk aversion of the decision maker.With respect to the technology competitiveness, photovoltaic is nowadays the most robust investment irrespective of the future uncertainty on natural resource availability and technological innovation. The competitiveness of wind and wave technologies is instead strictly affected by climate and technological uncertainty. Although wind technology is currently more competitive than wave, except for high-risk averse decision-makers, results show that the wave improvement estimated for 2030 and 2050 could make this technology an effective investment in the short/medium term. This suggests the importance of carefully deciding the timing of the investments reducing current investments in the wind for installing higher wave capacity in the future could in fact lead to more effective investments over the entire planning horizon.

Materials and Tools across Volcanoes: Exploitation of Georesources in Piano dei Cardoni (Ustica, Italy) during Prehistory

The paper aims at merging the first results from the analyses of the georesources exploited in the site of Piano dei Cardoni (Ustica island, Italy) during the Neolithic phases of its occupation (Middle-Late Neolithic, 4.7-4.2 ka cal BC). Grinding tools consist of a very varied typology of local volcanic rocks, easy to collect and available very close to the investigated site. A selection of shapes and lithology is applied to reach the best performance of the tools. The elevated number of grinders, pestles, mortars testify to an intense activity of food/plant processing in the site. The absence of chert or obsidian resources on the island pushed the human communities to import such raw materials from the Aeolian islands and probably from the north-western area of Palermo. Pumice is collected on the same island, probably due to the local availability and its good quality. Similarly, local clay resources are used for the manufacture of ceramics, mostly burnished and incised wares. Ustica was therefore almost autonomous for the exploitation of resources, with volcanic rocks readily available in abundance and with the most significant exception being chert and obsidian. This last one probably imported and worked on the island and then moved towards North-Western Sicily.

Geomorphology and Prehistoric Settlements on a Volcanic Island: the Case of Ustica (Palermo, Italy)

This study represents the first attempt to combine the geomorphological characteristics of the island of Ustica with the human settlements that have been established during prehistory, with the purpose of reconstructing the interactions between communities and the natural environment from the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age (6th - 1st millennia B.C.). Ustica is a small island in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, visible but far (~55 km) from the northern coast of western Sicily. Its rugged volcanic nature, remodeled and enriched by the sea, offered to the first colonizers a wide repertoire of opportunities and challenges. This island can be treated as an ideal “laboratory” to understand how settlers, taking their first steps towards the foundation of organized communities, were able to seize opportunities or succumb to obstacles. The review of archaeological research until now carried out in Ustica, integrated with geomorphological data and other biogeographical indicators, offers a picture of the prehistory of Ustica in which human presence is continuous and distributed in various sites of the island characterized by different physiographic characteristics. There are phases dominated by the choice of naturally protected sites and phases in which settlements expands on open land, suitable for agricultural use. Where the archaeological evidence is scarce, the geomorphological peculiarities allow us to decipher the vocations and characters of a human settlement. The study leads to an open question: in the Middle Bronze Age, after about five thousand years of uninterrupted habitation of Ustica, which factors, geological, social, or other, induced the early communities to abandon the island, without returning there for about eight centuries, until the Hellenistic-Roman age?

Archaeobotanical and Historical Insights on Some Steps of Forest Cover Disruption at Ustica Island (Sicily, Italy) from Prehistory Until Present day

ABSTRACT This paper interprets the first archaeobotanical data to emerge from the island of Ustica (north-western Sicily, Italy). The excavation of the Neolithic site of Piano dei Cardoni (4600-4200 cal BC) and the Middle Bronze Age site of Faraglioni Village (1500-1250 cal BC), has made it possible to analyse plant macro-remains and compare them with data on local vegetation obtained from both historical literary sources and recent field surveys. The onset of agro-pastoral practices in the mid-5th millennium BC brought about significant changes to the local pristine plant communities. Indeed, the presence of holm oaks and pine trees in that period was recently detected for the first time. The evolution of the local vegetation following the first human settlement in the Neolithic has some crucial parallels with what happened following the recolonisation of the mid-eighteenth century. The massive presence of olive trees during the Middle Bronze Age suggests the deliberate introduction of this crop species on the island and attests to olives’ paramount importance for the local economy at that time. The disappearance of some woody species shows that human occupation has had a powerful impact on the island’s forest resources, which partially recovered during the repeated long phases of land abandonment.

Biological control of Fusarium wilt of Ustica landrace lentil

Biological control by means of microorganisms represents an important aspect of sustainable agriculture and food production for organic crops. In this randomized block experimental study, conducted on the island of Ustica, Sicily (Southern Italy), three commercial products containing antagonist micro-organisms, i.e. Cilus Plus (Bacillus velezensis), Micostat F (Glomus spp., Trichoderma spp, Streptomyces spp. Bacillus subtilis, and Pichia pastoris) and Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis), were evaluated for the control of Fusarium wilt of lentil, over a 2-year period (2013–2015) in two separate fields. In the first year, at early bloom lentil stage, Mycostop in field A and Cilus Plus in field B significantly reduced F. oxysporum inoculum density by 44.0% and 37.5%, respectively. In the second year, at the same growth stage, Mycostop was most effective in reducing inoculum density of F. oxysporum (58.4% and 51.4% in field A and B, respectively). In the first year, at full bloom lentil stage, Micostat F significantly outperformed all other treatments in terms of incidence of disease, with an average reduction of 41.7% and 28.3% in field A and B, respectively. In the second year, Mycostop was most effective with a mean reduction of 44.4% and 50.0% in field A and B, respectively. As far as lentil grain yield is concerned, in the first year it was significantly increased following Micostat F treatments in field A, with an average rate of 37.5%, whereas Mycostop and Cilus Plus treatments, in field B, both produced average increases of only 13.0%. Lentil grain yield was also significantly greater in the second year after treatment with Micostop and Micostat F in field A, both with an average increase of 58.7%, and after Cilus Plus, in field B (mean 66.7%). These results support the effectiveness of all three commercial formulations to control Fusarium wilt of lentil, albeit with varying susceptibility of the pathogen to individual antagonists. In particular, F. oxysporum showed greater susceptibility to Mycostop and Micostat F in reducing both inoculum density and incidence of disease, while Cilus Plus was less efficient in reducing the same parameters. In conclusion, our data suggest that these commercial formulations may improve Fusarium wilt management as well as increase lentil yields.

Mini-grid hybridization and demand side management on non-interconnected small islands: the case study of Ustica, Italy

Small Mediterranean islands are typically served by mini-grids based on inefficient, polluting and costly diesel generators that provide electricity and freshwater through desalination plants. The study focuses on the case study of the Italian island of Ustica, for which the actual consumption and generation load profiles for 2018 have been used to simulate different scenarios through HOMER Pro software. The scenarios tested the possible integration of renewable energy sources (photovoltaic, small wind turbines) and electrochemical storage in the system, based on a techno-economic, financial, and environmental analysis. In addition to generation-side interventions, demand-side management strategies have been evaluated by considering the desalter as a deferrable load and by introducing energy efficiency measures. Finally, a sensitivity analysis on the most influential parameters (diesel price, discount rate) has been conducted on the base case scenario. The proposed technical solutions are compatible with the environmental and regulatory constraints of the island and lead to reduced emissions and long-term savings. The savings would enable a reduction in the cross-subsidy that the mainland electricity users pay to cover the higher costs incurred for diesel generation in non-interconnected small islands.

Analysis by pXRF of Prehistoric Obsidian Artifacts From Several Sites on Ustica (Italy): Long-Distance Open-Water Distribution From Multiple Island Sources During the Neolithic and Bronze Ages

AbstractThe small island of Ustica was a regular part of the obsidian distribution network in the central Mediterranean, despite its location more than 50 km north of western Sicily. More than 1000 obsidian artifacts from several different sites, ranging in age from the Neolithic through Bronze Age, were analyzed using a non-destructive, portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Obsidian from Lipari-Gabellotto dominates the assemblages at all sites tested, yet Pantelleria obsidian from both Balata dei Turchi and Lago di Venere are of notable quantities. Obsidian was not likely a major part of the material transported across open waters to this seemingly remote location, while our data support the hypothesis that some direct travel occurred from the Aeolian Islands to Ustica.

Growth and geomorphic evolution of the Ustica volcanic complex at the Africa-Europe plate margin (Tyrrhenian Sea)

We present here for the first time a morpho-structural study of the submarine sector of the Ustica volcanic edifice, located in the south-western Tyrrhenian Sea, considered as an inactive volcanic system, middle Pleistocene in age. The main aim of this research study is to unravel the submarine dynamics along the slope sectors of the Ustica volcano, in order to provide new insights on one of the most tectonically active regions of the Central Mediterranean during the Quaternary. We analysed and interpreted an integrated seismo-acoustic data set consisting of multibeam swath-bathymetry, sub bottom profiles, single-channel seismic reflection records, all of them acquired during the last two decades. The seismostratigraphic analysis indicates that the Ustica volcano is composed by a sequence of lava flows and pyroclastic products, whose geometry can be interpreted as the consequence of combined upward growing and northward shifting of the volcanic centers. The mapped geomorphological elements distributed along the submerged slopes were classified based on their specific morphogenetic process. The achieved results reveal that volcanic, tectonic, oceanographic and gravity processes interacted in shaping the complex current physiography of the volcanic edifice, which is characterized by extremely uneven submarine flanks. The northern region is characterized by the widespread occurrence of well-preserved cones, probably linked to the last submarine volcanic activity of the area. Along the eastern sector, elongate gullies and linear furrows locally incise the shelf break and develop downward producing slope failures. Furrows and gullies represent the main conduits for flushing sediments through various types of flows and mass wasting, from the shallow sectors to the bathyal plain. Along the southern and eastern region slope failures processes carve almost totally of the shelf edge and mainly propagate through retrograding collapses. Further on, the southern region is mainly shaped by E-W and N-S trending fault escarpments that may have triggered the largest slope failures of the area. The main results of this study contribute to improve the understanding of the geological processes and geodynamic activity between the Northern Sicily Continental Margin and the Tyrrhenian Basin and represent a baseline for assessing the geo-hazard potential on the Ustica Island.

Archaeometric Characterization of Obsidian Artifacts at Casa dei Francesi (Ustica Island, Italy) and Clues of a Hidden Prehistoric Settlement

AbstractAt Ustica island (Palermo, Italy), in the area of Casa dei Francesi, 119 fragments of obsidian artifacts were collected on the surface of an agricultural field at an altitude of 50 m asl. In the same area, until now, scientific literature reports only the presence of late Roman pottery (4th–6th centuries AD), and no evidence has appeared that it could be the site of a prehistoric settlement. The most important prehistoric settlement, the Faraglioni Village (Middle Bronze Age) is located 700 m further north, overlooking the sea. Obsidian provenance analyses, performed on the 119 samples with absolutely non-destructive techniques WD-XRF and SEM-EDS, indicate two sources areas: Lipari (93 samples, 78%) and Pantelleria (26 samples, 22%). Concerning the obsidians from the island of Pantelleria, it was possible to also establish the sub-source of Salto la Vecchia. The typological and functional analyses of the 119 obsidian fragments point out that 115 are debitages, some of which show evidence of percussion bulbs, and only 4 are tools with micro-retouching. This work focuses on the geochemical and typological characterization of the obsidian assemblage collected, the characteristics of which suggest the existence of a prehistoric settlement in the area of the Casa dei Francesi or nearby.

Sponges from rhodolith beds surrounding Ustica Island marine protected area (southern Tyrrhenian Sea), with a comprehensive inventory of the island sponge fauna

The sponge fauna colonizing rhodolith beds from Ustica Island marine protected area was studied. Moreover, an inventory of the sponge species present along the island’s coasts was carried out for the first time. Analysis of rhodoliths trapped in nets used by local fishermen at two sites and data obtained from underwater video images were used to identify 25 sponge taxa, 22 of them at species level. The classes Demospongiae and Homoscleromorpha were present with 24 and 1 species, respectively. Most of the specimens were small-sized and represented by thick crusts or short erect branches. Few specimens were insinuating or excavating. Furthermore, qualitative sampling was performed on Ustica’s coralligenous formations, photophilous hard substrates and in marine caves, and the results obtained were added to the literature data. The overall checklist of sponges from Ustica encompassed 97 taxa, 90 named at species level, subdivided into 6 taxa of Calcarea, 3 of Homoscleromorpha and 88 of Demospongiae. Eleven of the species were endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, mainly concentrated on rhodoliths and in marine caves. This research adds a fundamental element to the knowledge of invertebrates associated with rhodoliths, and updates the checklist of sponges colonizing Ustica’s waters, facilitating its future monitoring.

Evidencing Human Occupation of a Small Island Through Ancient Glass: The Case of Ustica (Palermo, Italy)

AbstractThe subject of this study consists of 17 ancient glass fragments from the island of Ustica (Palermo, Italy) obtained from local museums. All the 17 glass fragments are stratigraphically decontextualized, as they were collected by archaeological surface surveys. Each fragment was analyzed by Electron Micro Probe Analyzer coupled with an Energy Dispersive X-Ray System (EMPA-EDS) and by Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to obtain the composition of major, minor and trace elements. Surface analyses revealed the presence of corrosion layers in most of the glass fragments which was evident also in the chemical data. Nevertheless, reconstruction of the glassmaking processes and the approximate period of production was possible for almost all the glass fragments. Less than half of the examined fragments are attributable to recognizable typologies as unguentaria, beakers, bottles, and vases; all the other small fragments are typologically undetermined. Out of 17 fragments only one fragment is of HLLA composition possibly being produced in 17th–18th century AD, while all the others can be attributed to soda glass with different periods of production: natron glass from Roman and Early Medieval period, plant-ash glass from High or Late Medieval period with the exception of possible Byzantine glass from 6th century AD, and synthetic soda glasses typical of modern era. These data confirm the discontinuous habitation of the island from the Roman period as well as the import of glass objects to the island.

Unveiling the diet of the thermophilic starfish Ophidiaster ophidianus (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) combining visual observation and stable isotopes analysis

The starfish Ophidiaster ophidianus is an Atlanto-Mediterranean species protected under the EU’s Habitat Directive. Despite the wide distribution and the current range of expansion of this thermophilic species in the northern Mediterranean Sea, nothing is known about its diet. Using field observations and δ13C and δ15N Stable Isotopes Analysis (SIA), the feeding habits of O. ophidianus were explored in two Mediterranean rocky reef areas located in the southern Tyrrhenian (Ustica Island, Italy) and the eastern Adriatic Sea (Molunat, Croatia). According to field observations, O. ophidianus preys mainly on crustose coralline algae (CCA) and the keratose sponge Ircinia variabilis in both areas. SIA confirmed the role of CCA in the diet of O. ophidianus but not that of the sponge and highlighted a not negligible role played by other sessile invertebrates, such us small gastropods and small sedentary worms. It was concluded that O. ophidianus is a facultative herbivore in Mediterranean rocky reefs.

Volcanic Grinding Tools in Ustica Island (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy): Local Production vs. Import of Morgantina-Type Millstones in the Hellenistic-Roman Period

This archaeometric study was focused on 28 grey to dark-grey lava artifacts found in Ustica Island (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy) and referable to different grinding tools: saddle querns, rotary Morgantina-type millstones, rotary hand-mills and one small mortar. Mineralogy, petrography and bulk rock geochemical analyses emphasized that most of the grinding artifacts belonged to the Na-Alkaline series of Ustica, mainly basalts, hawaiites and mugearites. Nevertheless, some millstone samples did not match major and trace elements of Ustica lavas, in particular, one high-TiO2 Na-Alkaline basalt from Pantelleria Island, some tholeiitic/transitional basalts from the Iblei Mountains and one Calcalkaline basaltic andesite, most likely from the Aeolian Archipelago. The Hellenistic–Roman re-colonisation of Ustica Island, after ca. one millennium of nearly complete abandonment, was testified by the import of the non-local Morgantina-type rotary millstones, very widespread in the Mediterranean area from 4th–3rd century BC. This import of millstones represented, for the Ustica inhabitants, a real breakthrough for developing a local production of grinding artifacts on the basis of the new rotary technique which was much more efficient than that of the archaic saddle querns, largely used in the Middle Bronze Age. The results are also discussed in the framework of the overall volcanic millstone trade in the Mediterranean area and the different milling technology in antiquity.

Obsidians of Pantelleria (Strait of Sicily): A Petrographic, Geochemical and Magnetic Study of Known and New Geological Sources

Abstract This paper provides new petrochemical and paleomagnetic data from obsidian sub-sources on the island of Pantelleria, exploited since the Neolithic. Data has been obtained from 14 obsidian samples from 4 locations: Fossa della Pernice (2 sites), Salto la Vecchia and Balata dei Turchi. Here, we aim to better characterize these obsidians using a cross-disciplinary and multi-analytical approach, to further understand their archaeological significance. Major element analyses (EMP) have enabled two compositional super-groups to be distinguished: (i) Fossa della Pernice, less peralkaline and (ii) Balata dei Turchi–Salto la Vecchia, distinctly more peralkaline and having almost identical chemical patterns. Trace element analyses (LA-ICP-MS) corroborate major element groupings, with the Balata dei Turchi–Salto la Vecchia super-group being further characterized by a pronounced negative europium anomaly. Glass H2O contents (FT-IR) reveal an overlap among all the sub-sources (H2O = 0.1–0.3 wt. %). Magnetic methods have refined the petrochemical groupings, permitting further distinction between Balata dei Turchi–Salto La Vecchia and the Fossa della Pernice super-groups. The occurrence of sub-microscopic (< 1 μm) ferromagnetic minerals results in different magnetic susceptibility and Natural Remanent Magnetization values and allows the best distinction among the products from the chosen sites. When compared with obsidian tools excavated from Bronze-age settlements on the island of Ustica (230 km NE of Pantelleria), 12% are distinctly peralkaline, indicating their provenance to be from the Balata dei Turchi sub-source.

An Albanian Hemingway

Petro Marko (1913-1991) was an Albanian journalist, writer and communist activist, who volunteered in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War. Afterwards, he was imprisoned in the island of Ustica by the Italian occupiers of Albania during the Second World War and was briefly imprisoned by the communist regime of Albania in the late 1940s. Afterwards he worked as a journalist and a writer, being closely surveyed by the communist regime. The Spanish experience was the most important formative period throughout Marko’s stormy life, through which he was able to stay faithful to his communist and internationalist beliefs in the face of fascism and one of the most totalitarian and isolationist regimes in Europe. Marko wrote about the International Brigades in his most prominent novel, Hasta la Vista, and in his posthumously published autobiography. This paper will investigate these works by putting them in the historical context of the events themselves and of the time of the writing process. The aim is to look into how internationalism moulded his own identity, but also how this ideal was presented publicly under a communist regime that was becoming more and more isolated and xenophobic.