Marihuana Users Research Articles

Becoming a nitrous oxide user on social media: Learning to maximise pleasures and minimise harms.

In his classic work 'Becoming a marihuana user', Howard Becker (1953) showed how drug use learning occurred in social interactions and settings, which in turn shape drug use. Today, social media offers people opportunities to learn about drugs without physical proximity. In this paper, we identify nitrous oxide (N2O) users' key concerns about how to maximise pleasures and minimise harms, as expressed on the social media platform Reddit. In doing so, we consider what learning about N2O online might mean for the provision of drug education in an era of internet technology. Data are drawn from a Reddit page (subreddit) dedicated to N2O use. We undertook thematic analysis of 655 threads contributed in late-2020. The subreddit is conceptualised as an internet-mediated social world that constitutes drug user knowledges, practices and identities, rather than simply reflecting them. Our analysis uncovers practicesnot previously been reported in academic literature or health information on N2O, such as breathing techniques to maximise the effects and use of filters to reduce exposure to oil residue. While education resources often describe effects as 'mild', users recounted intense pleasures including euphoria, anaesthesia, sensory distortion, hallucination and epiphanies, especially when N2O was used with other drugs. Subreddit members were deeply concerned to minimise the risk of harms. Yet official health advice regarding N2O was not referenced, some misinterpretation of scientific literature was apparent and drug treatment was almost never suggested when people recounted harms. In contrast to official health resources, the subreddit offers members practical advice on harm reduction. It provides opportunities for users of N2O to position themselves as playful, informed and caring curators of drug use pleasures. We highlight the need for those formulating drug education to engage with the knowledge, practices and identities that emerge within internet-mediated social worlds.

Beckerian Distortions in Entrepreneurial Learning

This conceptual study challenges the assumption that entrepreneurial learning increases entrepreneurial effectiveness. Entrepreneurial learning is filtered through myths about entrepreneurship brought about by the Entrepreneurship Industry. When this is the case, entrepreneurial learning can be subject to Beckerian Distortions that decrease entrepreneurial effectiveness. Beckerian Distortion is what happens in learning processes where individuals learn to re-interpret negative experiences as positive and pleasurable (Becker, 1953: Becoming a Marihuana User). With Beckerian Distortions, entrepreneurs can learn to reinterpret negative market signals as indicative of entrepreneurial progress and venture viability. This can lead to ‘learned ineffectiveness’, where entrepreneurs do learn but learn things that lead them to perform worse if they had not learned at all. Beckerian Distortions not only drive behavior that reduces performance, but can also bolster an increased sense of entrepreneurial identity, despite of the absence of positive entrepreneurial outcomes, and an increased stigmatization of non-entrepreneurial careers. This can deter exit from an (un-successful) entrepreneurial career trajectory and ‘trap’ individuals in precarious work

How physicians should respond to the new cannabis regulations

The new Health Canada regulations on medical marihuana would allow patients to purchase dried cannabis from a licensed distributer with a medical prescription. Yet available evidence does not support the safety and efficacy of smoked cannabis as an analgesic. The controlled trials on smoked cannabis were very brief and had small sample sizes. The subjects had severe neuropathic pain syndromes, whereas most medical marihuana users have fibromyalgia, low back pain and other conditions commonly seen in primary care. None of these trials compared smoked cannabis to oral cannabinoids, which may be as or more effective than smoked cannabis for chronic pain. Oral cannabinoids are also far safer than smoked cannabis, which produces very high plasma THC levels, and toxic chemicals that are carcinogenic and atherogenic.

622 – Suicidal tendencies in a community sample of adolescents in the region of prizren

Introduction In many countries suicide is one of the leading causes of death among children and adolescents. Identifying young people at risk and offering effective treatment is a major concern of mental health policies. Objectives To look for the presence of suicidal thinking, plans and attempts in adolescents. Aims Measure the presence of suicidal tendencies having in mind possible correlation with psychological difficulties (measured by SDQ), level of depression, hopelessness and self-esteem of adolescents in one school sample. Methods The sample of adolescents at school have been offered to fill out CESD, Hopelessness scale for children, Rosenberg self-esteem scale, SDQ questionnaire and four item adopted questions about suicidal tendencies. All data has been analyzed by SPSS 14.0. Results In the sample of 768 adolescents (12-20yr, mean Age=17, 52) 22, 1% of them declared suicidal thinking, 3, 9% planed and 2, 2% attempted. About third of them didn’t find any reason for these tendencies. Females showed more suicidal tendencies but significantly only for thinking. Tobacco, alcohol and marihuana users have significantly more suicidality. Youths who declared more test anxiety have significantly more suicidal thinking. Significantly association is found between suicidal tendencies and psychological difficulties (emotional, conduct, hyperactivity and peers problems). Depression and high hopelessness also have significances. Suicidality is significantly higher in youths with normal self-esteem. Conclusions Suicidality is much presented in our sample and showed significantly association with substance use, psychological difficulties, hopelessness, depression and normal self-esteem.

Bupropion Reduces Some of the Symptoms of Marihuana Withdrawal in Chronic Marihuana Users: A Pilot Study

Bupropion’s (Zyban® SR) effectiveness to treat symptoms experienced in marihuana withdrawal was tested in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study with chronic, heavy marihuana users. Participants maintained their usual marihuana intake until Quit Day after which they were required to cease intake of THC products for 14 days. A Withdrawal Discomfort Score revealed that for 7 days immediately following cessation, placebo-treated subjects reported more symptoms than bupropion-treated subjects. Self-reported craving for marihuana increased for the placebo-treated group but not for those treated with bupropion. Measures of sleep and cognitive performance were not different between the two groups. Participants in the bupropion treatment arm were more likely to complete the study than those randomized to the placebo arm (50% completion for bupropion vs. 33% completion for placebo). These results suggest that bupropion may be useful for alleviating marihuana withdrawal symptoms and be useful in subject retention during long-term cessation programs.

Ingesta dietética en un grupo de pacientes fumadores de marihuana

Marihuana use has effects on appetite; studies in the literature on this topic area are limited. The aim of our work was to evaluate the dietary intake of marihuana smoking patients. A total of 32 male subjects were enrolled (average age 37.25 +/- 8.8 years). In all patients were determined weight, height and body mass index and a three days nutritional questionnaire. Total calories intakes were higher (3,350.1 +/- 979 kcal/day). Distribution of calories was 44.3% of carbohydrates, 14% of proteins and 41.7% of lipids (50.6% mono-unsaturate fats, 36.3% saturate fats and 13.1% poluunsaturated fats). Total protein intake was 109.6 +/- 38.5 g/day and corrected by weight was 1.62 +/- 0.73 g/kg. Low intake of vitamin D, E, folic, magnesium and iodine were detected. High intake of vitamin A, C, K, thiamine, riboflavine, B6, niacin, B12, calcium, iron and zinc were observed. No statistical differences in dietary intake or weight were detected between groups of marihuana users by median of consumption time of this drug. Marihuana smoking patients realized a hipercloric and hiperproteic diet, with high amounts of fats and with an intake of micronutrients above international recommendations. This dietary intake has not related with weight.

Indicadores psicosociales de motivación del consumo de marihuana y/o cocaína

In order to identify marihuana and/or cocaine use protective and risk indicators within the context of Maslow’s theory of motivation, we compared the psychological meanings of five key concepts (family, friends, self, cocaine and marihuana) among young male users of marihuana and cocaine, and users of both drugs who requested treatment, and non-drug user students. Results showed differences in the evaluation of five key concepts in the groups, where we found higher evaluations of family, friends and self in non-users (concordant with the psycho-pathogenesis postulate of psychosocial Maslow motivational theory), in addition to lower evaluations of drugs. Taking family, friends, and self as protective indicators, we find satisfaction of deficit needs and indicators that suggest encephalic reward circuit activation, whereas risk indicators are mostly negative components, incompatible with protective indicators. Among risk indicators associated with the substances, we identified positive components that show reward circuit activation. Results correspond with the factors reported in the literature, and we consider it important to explore them in greater depth in order to identify the prevention and treatment needs of each drug user group.

Neurocognitive consequences of marihuana—a comparison with pre-drug performance

In determining the effects of regular marihuana use on neurocognition, abilities within specific relevant cognitive domains prior to regular drug use have not been available. The present study examined effects of current and past regular use of marihuana in subjects for whom pre-drug performance had been ascertained in a prospective, longitudinal fashion. A total of 113 young adults, assessed since infancy, were evaluated using neurocognitive tests for which commensurate measures were obtained prior to the initiation of marihuana smoking. Marihuana users, determined by urinalysis and self-report, were categorized as light(<5 joints per week) and heavy (≥5 joints per week) current users and former users, the latter having used the drug regularly in the past (≥1 joint per week) but not for at least 3 months. A third of the subjects were using marihuana on a regular basis at the time of assessment with half being heavy users. Among former, regular users, approximately half had been smoking 5 or more joints per week. Overall IQ, memory, processing speed, vocabulary, attention, and abstract reasoning were assessed. After accounting for potentially confounding factors and pre-drug performance in the appropriate cognitive domain, current regular heavy users did significantly worse than non-users in overall IQ, processing speed, immediate, and delayed memory. In contrast, the former marihuana smokers did not show any cognitive impairments. It was concluded that residual marihuana effects are evident beyond the acute intoxication period in current heavy users after taking into account pre-drug performance but similar deficits are no longer apparent 3 months after cessation of regular use, even among former heavy using young adults.

Reduction of auditory P50 gating response in marihuana users: further supporting data.

This report attempts to replicate our recent finding of a significantly reduced sensory gating response in medically and psychiatrically normal chronic marihuana users. After exclusions, 10 normal heavy marihuana users (> or = 3 times per week) and 10 normal non-user controls were tested with the paired auditory P50 sensory gating procedure. Sensory gating ratios were significantly higher (i.e., impaired suppression) for THC users as compared to controls. Using combined data from the current and previous report, the degree of sensory gating impairment among THC users was significantly correlated with the frequency of marihuana use per week. Suggestions for further research are offered.

Reduced P50 auditory gating response in psychiatrically normal chronic marihuana users: a pilot study

Background: Neurophysiological studies of marihuana (THC) often contain uncontrolled confounds [psychiatric diagnoses, polydrug use, central nervous system (CNS)-relevant injury, etc.] that can alter electrophysiological measures. This P50 sensory gating report is part of a larger neurophysiological and neurocognitive investigation of chronic THC exposure using rigorously screened medically and psychiatrically normal individuals without concurrent use of non-THC substances. Methods: Following medical and psychiatric screening, including serial urine drug screens, technically adequate P50 paired auditory recovery tests were obtained on 19 chronic THC users and 14 control subjects. Fifty pairs of 80-dB auditory clicks (1 pair per 10 sec, 500-msec interclick separation) were delivered through earphones. The sensory gating measure was the ratio between the P50 amplitudes at the vertex elicited by the conditioning (first) and test (second) click. Results: THC subjects had significantly higher sensory gating ratios (i.e., reduced suppression) than did control subjects. Among THC users, sensory gating ratios did not correlate with duration or frequency of THC use, although subjects with ratios above 40 had nearly twice the number of “joint-years” of THC exposure than did those with lower ratios. Conclusions: Reduced P50 suppression in the sensory gating paradigm may be a possible neurophysiological CNS sequela of long-term cumulative exposure to THC.

Possible EEG Sequelae of Very Long Duration Marihuana Use: Pilot Findings from Topographic Quantitative EEG Analyses of Subjects with 15 to 24 Years of Cumulative Daily Exposure to THC

In previous work we demonstrated and replicated a significant association between increased absolute and relative power and interhemispheric coherence of EEG alpha activity over the bilateral frontal-central cortex ("alpha hyperfrontality") in daily marihuana users as contrasted with nonusers. In this report we focused our analyses on subjects who reported smoking marihuana on a daily basis for 15 to 24 consecutive years. Compared to nonuser controls and subjects who had used marihuana on a daily basis for shorter periods of time, subjects with excessively long cumulative exposures to THC were found to have significantly elevated absolute power of theta activity over bilateral frontal-central cortex, as well as significantly increased interhemispheric coherence of theta activity across central and posterior regions. Concurrent reaction time studies conducted in our laboratory suggest that very long duration cumulative marihuana exposure might be associated with slowed cognitive processing.

Early and middle latency evoked potentials in medically and psychiatrically normal daily marihuana users: a paucity of significant findings.

The use of evoked potentials to study CNS effects of marihuana (THC) have produced inconsistent findings. Our previous pilot studies suggested that auditory P300 latencies and amplitudes, auditory P50 and somatosensory P30 amplitudes and brainstem auditory evoked potential latencies were altered in THC users. Because these findings were flawed by uncontrolled psychiatric diagnostic and medication variables, we undertook a controlled investigation of screened medically and psychiatrically normal THC users and controls. When age effects were controlled, THC related alterations of brain stem and both auditory and visual P300 responses could not be seen. This report extends our analyses to other auditory, somatosensory and visual evoked potentials. With the possible exception of an elevated auditory P50 amplitude, significant evoked potential correlates to daily THC use were not seen when normals were studied and age effects controlled.

Auditory and visual P300 event related potentials are not altered in medically and psychiatrically normal chronic marihuana users

Attempts to use Event Related Potentials, particularly the cognitive or P300 evoked potential, as measures of CNS effects of THC use have been infrequent and have produced inconsistent results. We published a pilot study in which psychiatric patient THC users had significantly prolonged auditory P300 latencies and reduced amplitudes as contrasted with non-users. Because psychiatric diagnoses and medication effects could not be controlled, we repeated the study with medically and psychiatrically normal subjects selected with extremely stringent exclusion criteria and screening procedures. P300 latency differences between THC users and controls were not detected. Using all subjects, THC users displayed reduced auditory and visual P300 amplitudes. However, when age differences between THC users and controls were removed, all significant P300 amplitude differences were removed as well. The contaminating effect of using psychiatric patients in THC research is discussed and the importance of using carefully screened normal subjects in studies of neurophysiological abuse drug effects is stressed.

Persistent Topographic Quantitative EEG Sequelae of Chronic Marihuana Use: A Replication Study and Initial Discriminant Function Analysis

In a previous pilot study using psychiatric patients we reported that daily marihuana users had significant elevations of (1) Absolute Alpha Power, (2) Relative Alpha Power, and (3) Interhemispheric Alpha Coherence over both frontal and frontal-central areas when contrasted with subjects who did not use marihuana. We referred to this phenomenon as Hyperfrontality of Alpha. The study presented here is a successful replication of our previous findings using new samples of subjects and identical methods. Post hoc analyses based on the combined sample from both studies suggest that variables of psychiatric diagnoses and medication did not bias our results. In addition, a discriminant function analysis using quantitative EEG variables as candidate predictors generated a 95% correct THC user versus nonuser classification accuracy which received a successful jackknife replication.

Chronic effects of marihuana smoking on luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and prolactin levels in human males

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the chronic effects of marihuana smoking on the basal and stimulated secretion of the pituitary hormones luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating (FSH) and prolactin (PRL). Ten male chronic marihuana users and 10 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers were studied by measuring hormone levels before and after i.v. administration of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). The basal and stimulated levels of LH were reduced in marihuana users, whereas FSH and PRL levels and responses were not different from the control subjects. The chronic use of marihuana may selectively impair the hypothalamic control mechanisms regulating LH secretion.

Determination of Δ1‐tetrahydrocannabinol in human fat biopsies from marihuana users by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

A gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC/MS) method for analysis of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 1-THC) in human fat samples is described. The fat sample, obtained from heavy marihuana users 1 week before and 4 weeks after smoking, is homogenized in hexane + 2-propanol, centrifuged, and the supernatant mixed with Lipidex 5000. The solvent is evaporated and the dried gel is packed in a glass column. delta 1-THC is eluted from the column with methanol + water + acetic acid, diluted with water and the eluent is passed through a bed of Octadecylsilane-bonded silica. After washing and drying, the retained delta 1-THC is eluted with hexane, derivatized with N-methyl-N-(t-butyl-dimethysilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) and finally purified by HPLC on an Octadecyl Sl 100 column in methanol. The amount of delta 1-THC is determined by GC/MS, using selected ion monitoring, and a deuterated internal standard. The recovery of delta 1-THC is about 80%, and the concentration of delta 1-THC in the fat samples analysed ranged between 0.4 and 193 ng/g wet tissue.

Topographic Mapping of Quantitative EEG Variables in Chronic Heavy Marihuana Users: Empirical Findings with Psychiatric Patients

EEG studies of marihuana use dating back to 1945 were reviewed. The earlier studies depended upon visual analysis of the tracing, and while some minor frequency and amplitude variations occurred in some subjects, there was no consistent THC induced change noticeable across subjects. Quantitative EEG studies of acute exposure to THC came later and produced reliable findings of a placebo controlled dose dependent THC induced increase in relative power of alpha, combined with decreased alpha frequency and a reduction of beta activity. These findings were reported for data collected from central-occipital derivations only. In our present investigation, we report that chronic heavy THC users have EEGs characterized by (1) increased absolute power of all frequencies over all cortical areas (2) hyperfrontality of elevated relative and absolute power and coherence values of alpha activity, and (3) a decrease in relative power of all non-alpha frequencies. Methodological issues were discussed and some suggestions were made for continuing research in this area.

CORRELATES OF DRUG ABUSE IN JAMAICAN (WEST INDIES) HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Some research shows that drug use is associated with personality. For example, Lester ( 1986) found that marihuana users were more extraverted and less judgmental than nonusers. To explore correlates of drug abuse among high school smdents, 73 male and 72 female Jamaican (West Indies) high school students aged 16 and 17 yr. (mean age 16.5 yr., SD = 0.5) were given the Carlson Psychology Survey ( Carlson, 1982 ) which has scales to measure general drug use, thought disturbance, self-depreciation, and antisocial tendencies. They also completed the Rockliff ( 1969) Self-rating Questionnaire which measures depression. The students were enrolled in six classes from three high schools . The mean scores (and SDs) of the students on the scales were: d n ~ g use 12.8 (4.0), thought disturbance 29.1 (6.0), antisocial tendencies 32.9 (8.6), self-depreciation 19.0 (4.7) and validity 3.7 (1.3). Drug use was not related to age (Pearson r = 0.01) but was related to sex ( r = 0.17, 9 = 0.02) and the validity scale of the Carlson Survey ( r = 0.24, p = 0.002). Accordingly, partial correlation coefficients were calculated for each sex separately, controlling for validity scores. For both sexes, drug use was positively related to scores on the antisocial behavior scale (partial 1.s of 0.51 and 0.49 for boys and girls, respectively). For the girls, drug use was also associated with thought disturbance and selfdepreciation (partial rs of 0.33 and 0.21, respectively) but not depression (partial r = 0.16). For the boys these three correIations were scatistically nonsignificant (parrial rs of 0.07, 0.16, and 0.16, respectively). For these Jamaican high school students, male and female drug users appeared to be more antisocial, and girls appeared to be more emotionally disturbed.

Marihuana use and personality.

Marihuana users have been described negatively as apathetic and lethargic (McGlothlin & West, 1968) and positively as socially poised and open to experience (Hogan, et al., 1970). To explore the personality correlates of marihuana use in an era when its use is widespread, student users and nonusers at a state college were compared using the Keirsey-Bates test of Jungian dimensions ( a modification of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) : introversion-extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling and judging-perceiving (Keirsey & Bates, 19S4). The subjects were 52 students enrolled in social science courses: 34 females and 18 males aged 18 to 22 yr. (Mean age 20.4 yr., SD 1.0). On the intuiting scale, those who had never used marihuana scored 3.5 (SD = 5.4), those using it in the past scored -1.0 (SD = 6.71, and those using it currently scored -3.9 (SD = 7.0) ( F = 5.01, df = 2/49, P = 0.01). Those currently using marijuana scored lower on the judging scale (means 1.5 versus 5.4, SDs = 6.9 and 6.9, t = 1.99, df = 50, two-tailed p = 0.05). It may be concluded that marihuana use is related to personality in these college students, with users having higher intuiting and perceiving scores than nonusers.

A theory of adolescent substance abuse.

This report applies a theory of psychological individuation to inferences drawn from an 8-year series of clinical studies of men who practice heavy, chronic use of different drugs. Each man was studied intensively over a period of 4-5 months, using interviews and a comprehensive battery of dimensional and morphogenic assessment procedures. Users of barbiturates and sedative hypnotics were found to be least mature, followed by users of opiates, users of amphetamine, users of cocaine, and nonusers of drugs, who were found to be most mature. A theory is described which conceives adolescent substance abuse as rooted in dysfunctional relationships with parental figures which block or delay the normal individuation process. Comparable sets of representative case studies of heavy, chronic users of alcohol and marihuana are recommended to facilitate the development of treatment programs that take into account the special needs of persons who practice heavy, chronic use of different substances.