Use Of X-ray Methods Research Articles

The Fe-C diagram – History of its evolution

The evolution of concepts and methods of physical and chemical science that contributed to the formation of the Fe-C diagram during the previous centuries is considered. Despite the classical knowledge, there are still differences in the representation of the Fe-C diagram by scientists from different countries, in particular, the data of scientists from Germany, Poland, Ukraine, the USA, and Australia are somewhat mismatched. The authors tried to understand the reasons for this discrepancy. To conduct the research, general scientific methods of cognition were used: comparative analysis and synthesis, as well as a chronological one. It is claimed that the first studies of carbon content in steel were carried out in 1802. Further research development began in 1827–1829 when it was established that graphite is pure carbon. It is emphasized that further studies of carbon content in steel and cast iron are connected with attempts to create the first graphs of dependence on content and temperature. This, in turn, contributed to the development of the industrial revolution. It is believed that the first complete diagram was presented in 1897 by Roberts-Austen. Later, with the use of X-ray methods and microscopy, the Fe-C diagram gradually took on a new form. At the beginning of the 20th century, scientists actively proposed their phase diagrams. Studies conducted by scientists of different countries during 1909–1911 gained a consolidation, which was produced at the 6th Congress of the International Association for testing materials meeting into the unification of the names of phase transformations. Further research until the beginning of the Second World War was aimed at the creation of “pure” steel, that is, without harmful impurities, and clarifying the transformation temperatures. The period of the Great Depression in the USA and the war in Europe did not contribute to scientific research. At the same time, for the mass production of steel and cast iron, errors in critical points of a few degrees did not have a significant impact, that is, refining the temperatures of phase transformations were not considered appropriate. Today’s trend in scientific research is aimed at solving environmental problems caused by the industrial revolution.

Методи діагностування дефектів деталей авіаційних двигунів з композиційних матеріалів

The key priority in improving the technical and economic performance of gas turbine engines lays in the use of new composite materials. The use of composites in the components of critical load-carrying structures operating under static and dynamic loads during long service lives determines the need to predict the component lives. Also, in order to increase the safety of engine operation and improve the parts manufacturing process, timely defect detection in such structures is of great importance. This article is devoted to the detection of the composite parts defects and damages that occur at different stages of manufacturing and operation. The aim is to investigate the existing methods of non-destructive testing of composite materials, describe their functional concept, and determine the field of their application. The article considers acoustic, thermal, optical, and radiation testing methods. Among the acoustic methods, the phased array method is selected as the most informative and multipurpose. The acoustic emission method is also selected; it will allow real-time monitoring of defect growth during testing. Out of thermal methods, the vibrothermography method was selected as the most advanced among the thermographic sub-methods. It allows using the phenomenon of local defect resonance and thus ensures effective defect detection. Shearography is selected for investigation out of optical methods. The special aspects of the use of X-ray methods are considered through the example of X-ray computed tomography. It is concluded that the approach combining several methods can significantly increase the efficiency of defect detecting and help to assess their criticality. Active thermal testing is well suited for fast scanning of large-sized parts and searching for areas of defect accumulation. In the following, local methods, such as impedance, vibrothermography, or one of the ultrasonic, should be used. To measure deformations under static load, it is a good practice to use shearography. To identify progressive defects under static load, it makes sense to use the acoustic emission method.

Экспериментальная и теоретическая оценка рентгеноконтрастности тонкомерных образцов никелида титана с микронными покрытиями на основе Ti и Ta

The prospect of applying of Ti-Ta coatings of micron thickness in order to increase the X-ray visibility of the small-diameter TiNi samples for endoscopic surgery is analyzed in the paper. The radiopaque properties of the Ta and Ti-Ta coatings with thickness of 1-2 μm on the surfaces of the TiNi alloy wire a diameter of 152 μm were investigated. Comparative data of calculated (according to the X-rays mass absorption coefficient) and experimental (with use of X-ray method on the angiographic installation) characteristics of the X-ray visibility of coated samples are given. It is shown that the Ti60-70Ta40-30 coatings with a thickness of 1–2 μm lead to an increase in twice the X-ray visibility of the coated TiNi wire. The change in the X-ray visibility of coated TiNi samples (wire and semi-stents) depending on the concentration of tantalum in the coating was analyzed with use of different X-ray angiographic modes.

РАСПРЕДЕЛЕНИЕ ОСТАТОЧНЫХ НАПРЯЖЕНИЙ ПРИ СВАРКЕ В УСЛОВИЯХ НИЗКИХ КЛИМАТИЧЕСКИХ ТЕМПЕРАТУР

The investigation of residual welding stresses is extremely essential for the choice of efficient structural forms of designed welded structures and for the correct choice of technological welding methods for manufacturing welded structures. In spite of the substantial data amount obtained as a result of the investigations carried out earlier the distributions of residual stresses and their impact upon working capacity of welded joints carried out during welding under conditions of low climatic temperatures is studied insufficiently. Actually there are no works on experimental investigations of residual stresses of welding under cold climatic conditions. 
 The purpose of the work consists in the investigation of the character of residual stress distribution in end welded joints of structural steel St3sp after welding under low climatic temperature conditions by power sources with pulse and constant parameter measurements. 
 To investigate residual stresses there was carried out plate welding at room and negative air temperatures. There were chosen and carried out two welding modes: pulse-arc welding with modulated current with the frequency of 1.67Hz and direct current welding. The definition of residual stresses was carried out with the use of X-ray method based on the measurement of material lattice micro-deformations caused by their effect.
 On the basis of the investigation results it was revealed that a welding temperature affects a value and a character of weld stresses. At air temperature decrease up to -45ºC irrespective of the welding mode chosen the increase of a tensile residual welding stress level in welded joints by 40…50% is observed. In comparison with dc welding during welding with modulated current there are formed residual stresses with a lower level of mean values both at room (+20ºC) temperature, and at negative one (-45ºC). The increase of a tensile residual stress level during welding under cold air conditions is connected with the necessity to increase the rate of energy input at welding, and also with the increase of steel strength properties at temperature decrease.

The Effect of High-Doze Neutron Irradiation on Texture and Substructure Condition of Cladding Tubes from Zr-Based Alloys

Texture and substructure changes in cladding tubes from Zr-based alloys under neutron irradiation in the atomic reactor during 6 years were investigated by use of X-ray methods. For this aim in the “hot” laboratory the automated X-ray diffractometer was set and the technique to handle with irradiated samples was elaborated. The residual radiation activity of samples correlates with integral texture Kearns parameters of tube, so that the texture weakens as the doze of neutron irradiation grows. Because of the initial substructure inhomogeneity of cladding tubes its changes under neutron irradiation are also inhomogeneous: relatively perfect grains of texture maxima become more distorted, whereas initially distorted grains of texture minima becomes more perfect.

Рентгенологические особенности заживления костной раны нижней челюсти у больных язвенной болезнью желудка и 12-перстной кишки в условиях применения различных методов лечения

In practice, dental surgeon often performs the operation on removal of impacted third lower molar. Oppression of general and local immunity and violation of regeneration are always observed in a patient with gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer. The purpose of this work was to determine by the use of X-ray method the efficiency of application of proposed combination of preventive and curative bandages, including silver osteoplastic material (BIOMIN Gtls) and platelet-rich plasma autologous blood (РRР) on the post-extraction wound in patients with peptic ulcer. The basic material of research is the data obtained during the examination and treatment of 55 patients of both sexes who were on treatment at the departments of dentistry and gastroenterology of Crimean Republican clinical hospital with the diagnosis of gastric and 12 duodenal ulcers associated with H. Pylori. These patients needed the extraction of low third impacted molars. Radiographic evaluation processes of the organization of the alveolus tooth and bone tissue restoration was carried out on the basis of the analysis of indicators: the timing of forming osteogenic structures in apical part and along the walls of the hole, the rate of creation of large alveolar spongy bone, time of resorption contours of the walls of the alveoli. The X-ray examination was performed before the operation of tooth extraction, and on the 1st, 3rd, 6th and 12th months after treatment procedure as well. In comparison with the traditional method of surgical wounds, the use of silver osteoplastic material (Biomin HTSA) and platelet-rich plasma autologous blood (РRР) allows to optimizing the conditions for the repair processes in the bone, reduce the time of formation of full-fledged regenerate.

Complementary use of X-ray methods to study ancient production remains and metals from Northern Portugal

Archaeological artefacts recovered at Castanheiro do Vento (Northern Portugal) were characterised by integrating macro and micro-energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) and scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis. The collection includes metallurgical remains (ceramic crucibles, a metallic nodule and a vitrified fragment) and metals (tools and ornaments) whose chronology spans from the Chalcolithic to the Roman Age. The study of production remains was able to identify distinct copper-based metallurgical operations including the smelting of copper ores, the melting of copper and tin and/or the melting of bronze scrap. Micro-EDXRF identified copper and arsenical copper tools as well as bronze and leaded bronze ornaments. The composition of tools (Cu with varying As contents: 0.46–3.6%) reveals an incipient technology, typical of the Chalcolithic till the Middle Bronze Age. On the contrary, ornaments are composed by different alloys – low tin bronze (4.8% Sn), high tin bronze (14.9% Sn) and high tin-leaded bronze (16.5% Sn and 2.4% Pb) − evidencing technological and economic choices that clearly indicate a late period such as the Roman Age. In conclusion, this multiproxy approach was able to study those ancient artefacts with a minimum impact on their archaeological and museological significance while providing important answers to the interpretation of the archaeological settlement and to better understand the metallurgical evolution in the Portuguese territory. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The pioneering steps of radiology in Turkey (1896–1923)

The discovery of X-rays (1895) by W.C. Roentgen has been a very important step of the modern civilization as a revolutionary technique for scientists all around the world and it has immediately been applied in medical field. The aim of this study is to search the start of radiology in Turkey on the basis of archival and first hand sources. This study shows that Roentgen apparatus was first installed in Turkey by an intern doctor Esad Feyzi who took the first radiographies at the Imperial Medical School (Istanbul) in 1896. He made use of X-ray method for medical diagnosis later on when Turkish-Greek war broke out in 1897. Esad Feyzi worked in the clinical team led by professor Salih Effendi, MD, at the Yildiz Temporary Military Hospital in Istanbul to take radiographies of soldiers wounded at war in cooperation with the German Red Cross medical delegation. This event is most probably the earliest examples of the application of X-ray technique into military surgery all over the world. Researches have also proven that medical radiography technique was also applied in Greece by Greek and English doctors during that war. This war gave the opportunity to German and British medical teams to use X-ray as a radiographic imaging technique at the two confronting sides that was used in consequent wars in other parts of the world, later on. The paper deals with the progress of clinical radiology in Turkey until the foundation of the Turkish Republic in 1923.

Introduction to Soft X-Ray Spectroscopy

The presentation of some fundamental ideas concerning the behavior of electrons in solids is followed by an outline of the theory of the use of x-ray methods for obtaining information about these electrons. Experimental methods are discussed briefly and some recent trends and developments in the subject are reviewed.

An X-ray method for studying orientation of micaceous minerals in shales, clays, and similar materials

Micaceous minerals, such as the micas, the chlorites, and most clay minerals, usually develop as thin lamellae parallel to the crystallographic basal plane (001). In sedimentary deposits these lamellae tend to lie parallel to the bedding plane and in slates parallel to the cleavage. Their degree of orientation is likely to vary with the conditions of formation of the material, and in the case of slates Bates (1947) has shown that it is closely related to their fissility. In relatively coarse-grained materials the degree of orientation may be studied directly by suitable microscopic techniques, but with fine-grained materials X-ray methods must be used, and even with coarser-grained materials the use of X-ray methods may have advantages, especially if a scanning technique, such as that described by Thewlis and Pollock (1950), is employed.

Address of the President Sir William Bragg, O. M., at the anniversary meeting, 30 November 1938

According to our honoured custom I preface this annual address by references to those of our Fellows whom death has taken from us during the past year. Arthur Hutchinson (1866-1937), Emeritus Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge and lately Master of Pembroke College, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1922. He had served on the Council from 1932 to 1934 and was a Vice-President for the year 1933-4. While still young Hutchinson made a name for himself by brilliant researches on the chemistry and crystallography of stokesite and other minerals. He devised a stereographic projector and a slide rule which are much used by students of crystallography: and he was skilful in the construction of crystal models and lecture-room apparatus. As a teacher in the University of Cambridge he was highly successful: though it was not until 1926 that he became Professor of Mineralogy, his work had long been of professorial standing. When the use of X-ray methods from 1914 onwards opened up a new crystal science, he at once attached himself to its ways and aided its development. He designed his instruments afresh. He devoted his energies towards the organization of his Department to meet the altered needs in teaching and research. He was a devoted servant to Science, an excellent investigator, an able teacher and one of the kindest and most loyal of friends.

Address of the President Sir William Bragg, O.M., at the Anniversary Meeting, 30 November 1938

According to our honoured custom I preface this annual address by references to those of our Fellows whom death has taken from us during the past year. Arthur Hutchinson (1866-1937), Emeritus Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge and lately Master of Pembroke College, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1922. He had served on the Council from 1932 to 1934 and was a Vice-President for the year 1933-4. While still young Hutchinson made a name for himself by brilliant researches on the chemistry and crystallography of stokesite and other minerals. He devised a stereographic projector and a slide rule which are much used by students of crystallography: and he was skilful in the construction of crystal models and lecture-room apparatus. As a teacher in the University of Cambridge he was highly successful: though it was not until 1926 that he became Professor of Mineralogy, his work had long been of professorial standing. When the use of X-ray methods from 1914 onwards opened up a new crystal science, he at once attached himself to its ways and aided its development. He designed his instruments afresh. He devoted his energies towards the organization of his Department to meet the altered needs in teaching and research. He was a devoted servant to Science, an excellent investigator, an able teacher and one of the kindest and most loyal of friends.

An X-ray Sign in the Diagnosis of Reducible Esophageal Orifice Hernia

THERE has been an increasing interest in diaphragmatic hernias during the past few years. This is due, in part, to the fact that the clinical manifestations of the condition are manifold, often simulating and being mistaken for other, and usually more serious, intra-abdominal conditions. There is also a growing suspicion among some clinicians that diaphragmatic hernias may sometimes cause a severe, obscure anemia. The literature has now assumed sizable proportions. The clinical, developmental, and roentgen features have been well considered at length. Most of the recent observers stress the point that diaphragmatic hernias, particularly those through the hiatus, are still being overlooked in spite of the wide use of x-ray methods. These authors also call attention to the importance of a thorough examination in the various horizontal positions, if this condition is suspected. Owing to the limitations of time, space, and apparatus, many small laboratories, and not a few of the larger clinics, do not make such studies routinely. Moreover, some diaphragmatic hernias, even in the horizontal position, can be demonstrated only by prolonged and repeated examination. The importance of the lesion does not warrant making such a long-drawn-out routine search with all gastro-intestinal cases in a busy clinic. Any sign in the vertical position calling attention to the possibility of a diaphragmatic hernia should be of value. Gray, discussing the comprehensive article of Ritvo, suggested that it is absolutely impossible to diagnose or even suspect reducible orifice hernias with the patient in the vertical position. This is the type most apt to be overlooked during the roentgen examination, at the operating table, and even during the postmortem. The esophagus in the lower third forsakes its close relation with the spine, curving laterally and forward to pass through the hiatus esophagi of the diaphragm, and thence to reach the stomach at a rather acute angle. This portion of the esophagus is normally capable of respiratory motion, traveling to the midline and forward on inspiration. The stomach, which hugs the medial half of the diaphragm closely, is in an excellent position to herniate, if there be an opportunity to do so. The stomach migrates downward, as does the diaphragm, and the esophagus lengthens to permit this descent. Failure of the esophagus to do so for any reason causes a portion of the stomach to extend through the diaphragm. This hernia, known as the short esophagus type, has been well described by Akerlund and Anderson. If the patient assumes an upright position, there is no opportunity for a reduction. This hernia is excessively rare and has identifying characteristics of its own.