Wildlife Use Research Articles

Horns, hunters, and harvest: re‐examining management paradigms for pronghorn

AbstractThe sustainable use of wildlife is foundational to the success of the North American model of wildlife conservation. Harvest management often is shaped through both species biology and public desires. The long timespan it takes males of most ungulate species to reach peak weapon size has created a situation in harvest management in which harvest strategies cannot prioritize both generous hunter opportunity and opportunities to pursue large‐weaponed males; therefore, current harvest paradigms prioritize one at the expense of the other. In contrast to other species, pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) attain the majority of their peak horn size early in life. The rapid development of horns relative to their age may allow for liberal harvest without sacrificing the opportunity for hunters to harvest males with large horns. We evaluated the influence of sex ratios and average age of harvested males on the average horn size of harvested male pronghorn from 2019 to 2022 in 9 hunt areas in Wyoming, USA. Although mean age of harvested males was negatively affected by rate of harvest, increases in mean age at harvest led to only slight increases in mean horn size (i.e., a 1‐year increase in mean age increased mean horn size by 2.1 cm [~1 inch]). The proportion of the harvest composed of large‐horned males was not influenced by mean age of harvest or sex ratio of the population. Based on simulated populations, increasing harvest led to an increase in the number of large‐weaponed pronghorn in the harvest—a relationship that existed for bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and elk (Cervus canadensis) but only at low to moderate rates of harvest. The comparatively young age that pronghorn attain near‐peak horn size alleviates what is otherwise a tradeoff between hunter opportunity and managing for large horn size that is evident in management of other ungulate species. Though rarely a reality in management for large ungulates, for pronghorn, liberal harvest may be possible while still providing opportunity to harvest males with large horns.

Road mitigation structures designed for Texas ocelots: Influence of structural characteristics and environmental factors on non-target wildlife usage.

Roads negatively impact wildlife through habitat fragmentation, loss of habitat connectivity, and wildlife-vehicle collisions, thus road mitigation structures, such as wildlife crossing structures (WCS), wildlife guards (WG), and fencing are commonly used to address this issue all over the world, including in the United States. In South Texas, such structures were built or modified along a State Highway in an effort to address road mortality for the endangered ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and non-target wildlife species. The goal of this study was to examine temporal changes in wildlife interactions with WCS and WG during and after their construction and modification along a South Texas highway and to determine whether environmental factors influenced use of WCS. Using camera traps deployed to monitor the road mitigation structures, we compared crossing rates, repel rates, and species richness of all species that interacted with the structures, and we examined whether differential wildlife use of WCS and WG was affected by one or more structural dimensions, distance to nearby vegetation, and water presence. Crossings through WCS by wildlife decreased following the completion of construction of mitigation structures; however, repel interactions at WG increased. Overall, crossings decreased at WCS that had higher openness ratios and during periods of precipitation and higher daily temperatures, but distance to vegetation had minimal influence. These factors were shown to influence crossings of each of the five most frequently observed species differently. Lastly, the presence of pooled water at one WCS caused a decrease in crossings when the water level was highest but was not a barrier at lower water levels. By examining influences on wildlife interaction with road mitigation structures, we conclude that a variety of structures, including different WCS configurations, can be beneficial in facilitating movement and restricting entry into the right-of-way for a diversity of wildlife species beyond the target species.

Hunting indicators for community-led wildlife management in tropical Africa

Engaging local communities is pivotal for wildlife conservation beyond protected areas, aligning with the 30 × 30 target of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. We assessed the effectiveness of 33 offtake indicators, derived from hunter declarations, in monitoring the status and extent of degradation of hunted wildlife sourced from camera trap surveys and faunal composition analysis. The rodents:ungulates ratio in offtake and the mean body mass of total offtake emerged as practical and robust indicators of faunal degradation within hunting systems, with significant potential for broader application in similar tropical forest environments. Our findings provide a blueprint for managing and conserving natural resources in tropical regions through community-based initiatives. Involving local stakeholders ensures sustainable wildlife use and fosters ownership and responsibility. This study advances conservation efforts, bridging scientific rigor with community engagement for effective biodiversity preservation.

Testing an intervention codesigned with stakeholders for altering wildlife consumption: Health messaging matters

AbstractConsumer behavior change is a key priority to address the illegal wildlife trade, but evaluation of these interventions is lacking. We used surveys and randomized controlled trials to assess the effectiveness of three types of messages, which were codesigned with key stakeholders, with 2496 potential consumers and nontarget consumers in China. We found a 23% decrease in intention among potential consumers to use wild animal medicinal products by health‐related messages, and a 14% decrease by legality‐related messages, compared with the control group, though the effect size was small. Furthermore, we revealed that the effect of health‐related messages occurred indirectly by increasing health risk perceptions associated with improper utilization of wild animals. Yet, we did not find a clear effect pathway of the legality‐related messages. Regarding the nontarget consumers, information of whistleblowing platforms and incentives improved willingness to report illegal wildlife use directly, as well as indirectly through adding messages to increase perceived legality risk of using wild products and improve self‐efficacy in identifying legal products. Our findings can inform future larger scale efforts to influence wildlife consumption.

Human and Wildlife Use of Mountain Glacier Habitat in Western North America

Human and Wildlife Use of Mountain Glacier Habitat in Western North America

Experimental recreationist noise alters behavior and space use of wildlife

Providing outdoor recreational opportunities to people and protecting wildlife are dual goals of many land managers. However, recreation is associated with negative effects on wildlife, ranging from increased stress hormones1,2 to shifts in habitat use3,4,5 to lowered reproductive success.6,7 Noise from recreational activities can be far reaching and have similar negative effects on wildlife, yet the impacts of these auditory encounters are less studied and are often unobservable. We designed a field-based experiment to both isolate and quantify the effects of recreation noise on several mammal species and test the effects of different recreation types and group sizes. Animals entering our sampling arrays triggered cameras to record video and broadcast recreation noise from speakers ∼20m away. Our design allowed us to observe and classify behaviors of wildlife as they were exposed to acoustic stimuli. We found wildlife were 3.1-4.7 times more likely to flee and were vigilant for 2.2-3.0 times longer upon hearing recreation noise compared with controls (natural sounds and no noise). Wildlife abundance at our sampling arrays was 1.5 times lower the week following recreation noise deployments. Noise from larger groups of vocal hikers and mountain bikers caused the highest probability of fleeing (6-8 times more likely to flee). Elk were the most sensitive species to recreation noise, and large carnivores were the least sensitive. Our findings indicate that recreation noise alone caused anti-predator responses in wildlife, and as outdoor recreation continues to increase in popularity and geographic extent,8,9 noise from recreation may result in degraded or indirect wildlife habitat loss.

Systems management strategies for increasing alfalfa use in warm‐humid regions

AbstractAlfalfa use (Medicago sativa L.; “lucerne”) in warm, humid regions of the world represents a potential area of expansion for the alfalfa industry. The objective of this review paper is to demonstrate how alfalfa forage breeding and systems research efforts have identified opportunities for increasing alfalfa contributions in these regions, along with potential pathways for seed industry and farming operations to increase adoption. Our review draws primarily on reports from the Southeast United States and Argentina. Significant technological advancements in plant screening and selection have identified alfalfa plant populations that are more adapted to the growing conditions experienced in these regions, which are often characterized by mild temperature, long growing seasons, and multiple other abiotic and biotic stressors. Management systems research conducted in the United States and Argentina has demonstrated the use of alfalfa for conserved forage, grazing, or dual‐purpose use in monoculture or mixtures with warm‐season grasses such as bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.). These trials report increased forage production, nutritive value, and ecosystem services of alfalfa–grass mixtures when compared with traditionally N‐fertilized warm‐season grass‐based systems. Grazing‐based alfalfa systems in Argentina have demonstrated methods for utilizing alfalfa as part of beef, dairy, and finishing systems. Some approaches for expanding alfalfa production in the region include targeted marketing efforts for adapted varieties and demonstrating alfalfa applications within existing farming frameworks. This includes educational programming efforts and on‐farm demonstrations to promote alfalfa use as a component of the livestock diets, integration into grass‐based systems, crop rotations, and wildlife use. Continued emphasis on a systems approach to alfalfa inclusion represents an opportunity for improved forage and livestock production in warm, humid regions of the world.

Using Prescribed Fire and Biosolids Applications as Grassland Management Tools: Do Wildlife Respond?

Prescribed burning is a management tool commonly used in forested ecosystems in the southeastern United States, but the influence of this method on grassland vegetation and wildlife in this geographic region is unknown. During 2009–2015, we conducted a study to determine if the application of prescribed burning and/or long-term biosolid applications alter plant communities and/or wildlife use of grassland areas at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, Havelock, NC. We monitored vegetation growth, measured plant community composition, and documented wildlife activity in four study plots for 3 years after the implementation of annual winter prescribed burns. Prescribed burning reduced the amount of litter, increased bare ground during spring, and altered the plant community composition relative to areas that were not burned. Overall, prescribed burning did not alter (F1,803 = 0.37, p = 0.54) bird use of the airfield grasslands, while the long-term application of biosolids resulted in higher (F1,803 = 17.61, p < 0.01) bird use. Few species-specific differences in avian use of prescribed burned and unburned grasslands were found. In contrast, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) use of areas that were burned in winter, as well as the adjacent unburned areas, was drastically reduced. Winter prescribed burning appeared to remove forage plants at the time of year deer would use them the most. Our findings suggest that prescribed burning and biosolid applications, used alone and in combination, might be viable grassland management tools for altering wildlife use of grassland areas, specifically white-tailed deer; however, similar research at additional locations should be conducted.

Geographic Information System (GIS) for ecology: a bibliometric network analysis

Introduced in 1960s to store, analyse, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use, since their origins Geographic Information Systems (GISs) have had a fundamental role in the study of the environment. As computers systems for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth's surface, GISs have quickly become an effective and powerful tool for addressing ecological issues, analysing the relationship between living things and their habitats, assessing the environmental impact of man-made transformations of a territory. This article aims to show and discuss the results of a study concerning quantitative distribution of GIS for ecology in literature from Scopus database using bibliometric analysis. Bibliometric analysis is a scientific computer assisted review methodology to explore the major research interests in scientific literature, so to identify core research authors, as well as their relationship, by covering articles, conference papers, book chapters and reviews related to a given topic or field. The high number of scientific manuscripts published on the subject (5,204) in the analysed period (1979-2021), remarked the soundness of this topic. While China shows the greatest number of published documents, USA is the country with the most cited documents. Specifically, “remote sensing”, “spatial analysis” and “land use” are the keywords most frequently linked to GIS and ecology, so to underline respectively three aspects: the relevance of environment monitoring by satellite, airplane or drone, the utility of relating ecological questions to the geo-localization, the necessity of produce thematic maps for describing the economic and cultural activities (e.g., agricultural, residential, industrial, and recreational uses) that are practiced at a given place. Since the study shows that trend of publications focusing on the application of GIS for ecology is increasing, further growing is expected in the next future, also considering the ductility that these computer systems provide in different fields.

Combining Multi-View UAV Photogrammetry, Thermal Imaging, and Computer Vision Can Derive Cost-Effective Ecological Indicators for Habitat Assessment

Recent developments in Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles (UAVs), thermal imaging, and Auto-machine learning (AutoML) have shown high potential for precise wildlife surveys but have rarely been studied for habitat assessment. Here, we propose a framework that leverages these advanced techniques to achieve cost-effective habitat quality assessment from the perspective of actual wildlife community usage. The framework exploits vision intelligence hidden in the UAV thermal images and AutoML methods to achieve cost-effective wildlife distribution mapping, and then derives wildlife use indicators to imply habitat quality variance. We conducted UAV-based thermal wildlife surveys at three wetlands in the Rainwater Basin, Nebraska. Experiments were set to examine the optimal protocols, including various flight designs (61 and 122 m), feature types, and AutoML. The results showed that UAV images collected at 61 m with a spatial resolution of 7.5 cm, combined with Faster R-CNN, returned the optimal wildlife mapping (more than 90% accuracy). Results also indicated that the vision intelligence exploited can effectively transfer the redundant AutoML adaptation cycles into a fully automatic process (with around 33 times efficiency improvement for data labeling), facilitating cost-effective AutoML adaptation. Eventually, the derived ecological indicators can explain the wildlife use status well, reflecting potential within- and between-habitat quality variance.

Characteristics of the white-tailed deer hunting exploitation (Odocoileus virginianus) in Chihuahua, Mexico

Objective: To describe the characteristics of the number of hectares (located in the UMAs registered in the state of Chihuahua) used for the white-tailed deer free-range production, the level of exploitation of the species, and its economic value. Design/Methodology/Approach: This study determined the number of Units for the Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Use of Wildlife (UMAs) registered in the state of Chihuahua, where white tailed deer had been exploited since 2015. Forty-three municipalities in the state of Chihuahua, with a total of 159 UMAs, were analyzed. Twenty-three randomly selected UMAs were characterized, taking into account the hectares and the presence of white-tailed deer per municipality. Finally, the exploitation value of the species use per community was established in order to determine its exploitation and economic value. Results: The total area used for the exploitation of the white-tailed deer reaches 1,067,380 hectares. Thirty-two municipalities had potential for the exploitation of white-tailed deer. Thirty-three deer were hunted per season in the 23 UMAs under study, which accounts for a $990,000 Mexican pesos gross income for the state of Chihuahua per season; this exploitation generates a total of 115 temporary jobs for the communities surrounding the 23 UMAs studied. Chihuahua’s UMAs welcome a total of 33 white-tailed deer hunters per season. Hunters pay $30,000 to $34,000 Mexican pesos for each white-tailed deer specimen. Study Limitations/Implications: The study provides an overview of the current state of the UMAs in the state of Chihuahua that have a permit for the white-tailed deer hunting exploitation. Each of the UMAs under study has specific characteristics, including: the services offered, the associated hunting species, and the exploitation populations under an integrated sustainability arrangement. This study does not include the benefits of exploiting associated species, such as the collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) and the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Findings/Conclusions: Based on the number of registered UMAs, 32 out of 40 municipalities use 100% of their registered area for the exploitation of white-tailed deer. The white-tailed deer hunting exploitation increases the profitability and productivity of livestock ranches.

Human activities influence mule deer use of overpasses across multiple scales

AbstractAnthropogenic linear infrastructures (ALIs), including roads, railways, and canals, provide important resources to humans, but they can affect wildlife through habitat fragmentation and reduced movement through landscapes. To mitigate these effects, overpass crossing structures (i.e., overpasses) can facilitate wildlife movement across ALIs and maintain landscape connectivity. Human activities can potentially influence spatial and temporal patterns in wildlife use of overpasses; however, little information is available about human–wildlife interactions across some types of ALIs. Using remote wildlife cameras, we evaluated human and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) use and interactions at 43 overpasses along the Central Arizona Project canal in Arizona, USA, during 2 seasons (warm and cool) from February 2021 to February 2022. Mule deer exhibited spatial avoidance of human activities at overpasses, although the effect varied across seasons and types of human activity. At a broad scale, the presence of recreationists at overpasses did not exclude mule deer from using overpasses to cross the canal; however, human presence reduced mule deer detection probability in the warm season. At a fine scale, mule deer decreased use of overpasses as activity associated with canal personnel (i.e., security and maintenance workers) increased in the cool season. For both seasons, mule deer exhibited greater overlap in daily activity patterns with recreationists compared to canal personnel. Further, mule deer shifted daily activity patterns to be more active earlier in the morning at sites with high amounts of recreational use compared to sites with lower recreational use. Because human activities can influence mule deer crossings at overpasses, managers might consider minimizing human activities at crossing locations to increase wildlife use and promote wildlife movement across canals and other types of ALIs.

Peer-reviewed research based on the relationship between South African cultures and biodiversity

Understanding past and present relationships of traditional cultures with biodiversity through biocultural research can help inform inclusive conservation policy and planning in a country seeking to undo past injustices such as South Africa. This review of 326 articles published between 1990 and 2019 maps the methodology employed in biocultural research, the focus of this research niche, ethical conduct and research recommendations to understand the state of biocultural research and make recommendations for biocultural research that is representative of South Africa’s diverse cultural landscape. This systematic review of original research articles indexed on the Scopus database found South African biocultural research to exclude Swati and Ndebele cultures while having an unevenly strong focus on plants, human health sciences, rural areas, and three of the country’s nine provinces. Some of this unevenness is likely because of utility of plants in human health and association of traditional practices with rural areas. Using a systematic review approach for this study not only ensured replicability but it also introduced a limitation of the results only being applicable to peer-reviewed articles indexed on the Scopus database.Conservation implications: Biocultural research’s strong focus on utilitarian use could encourage conservation policy that favours utilitarian use of wildlife. An even focus in biocultural research is recommended to avoid the knowledge pool for conservation policy being mostly focussed on utilitarian value.

Mapping the Ophiocordyceps sinensis value chain: actors, profits and social institutions in south-west China

AbstractCommercial use of wildlife is booming. However, knowledge of trade, price structure and benefit distribution mechanisms remain limited for many endemic, threatened and economically valuable species, impeding efforts to develop conservation intervention schemes in line with sustainable objectives. We illustrate the nature of commercialization of the caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, collected in a high-altitude Tibetan region. Using the value-chain approach, we document how caterpillar fungus is collected in a remote mountainous region and traded across a wide range of middlemen until it finally reaches high-end markets in urban centres. Mapping the caterpillar fungus value chain helps identify the actors involved and the social institutions (i.e. the rules, norms and arrangements that shape people's behaviours) facilitating access to markets and influencing profit distribution and price structure. We present the complex dynamics of this commercialization process, providing a holistic value-chain analysis that encompasses actors, profits and institutions.

Enhancing Conservation Communication: Using Digital Literacy to Address the Misunderstanding of Southern Africa’s Sustainable Use Approach in Western Settings

Effective communication and digital literacy are crucial for addressing misunderstandings about the Southern African approach to sustainable use in Western settings. This paper highlights the need to enhance conservation communication and explores the role of digital communication in bridging the gap between the Southern African approach and Western conservation paradigms. The Southern African emphasis on community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) and sustainable wildlife use for both conservation and economic purposes often faces misinterpretation and scepticism in Western societies that prioritize preservation and non-consumptive use. By analysing literature, case studies, and communication strategies, this study identifies the challenges stemming from cultural biases, differing conservation ideologies, and limited understanding of the Southern African context. It investigates the significance of digital literacy in overcoming these challenges by promoting the development of technology skills among conservation practitioners and members of communities coexisting with wildlife, equipping them with relevant digital tools, promoting information sharing, fostering cross-cultural dialogue, and engaging diverse stakeholders through digital platforms. The paper stresses the significance of utilizing diverse communication channels (including social media, online forums, websites, campaigns, multimedia tools, and educational resources) to share accurate and culturally sensitive information about the Southern African approach. It highlights the necessity for tailored communication strategies that consider the distinct needs and values of various audiences, incorporating digital approaches involving active listening, dialogue, and the integration of local knowledge. This study promotes the development of inclusive and accessible spaces through improved digital literacy and effective communication strategies. It advocates for mutual understanding and collaboration between Western and Southern African conservation practitioners, stakeholders, and decision-makers. By leveraging digital platforms and enhancing communication competencies, the Southern African approach can be better comprehended within Western settings, fostering sustainable conservation practices and nurturing collaborative partnerships in conservation initiatives.

Legal, scientific, informational and ideological measures to ensure sustainable use of wildlife objects: russian and foreign experience

This article deals with the ecological education as an important means in the process of animal world preser-vation. Legal education is supposed to form a high level of legal awareness and legal culture among citizens and society. The result of legal education should be regarded in knowledge, citizens’ respectful attitude to the current legislation. According to this article, a high level of legal culture and legal education will allow everyone to realize the need to preserve the biodiversity of wild animals for the present and future generations. Based on the analysis of certain provisions of the legislation on the animal world and law enforcement practice, the article states that there is no comprehensive system of legal measures for the sustainable use of wildlife in Russia. The legal, economic, ideological, organizational measures proposed in this article will make it possible to achieve such use of the animal world that will preserve and increase the number of wild animal popula-tions, maintain ecological balance, and ensure satisfaction of the needs of present and future generations in a favorable environment. The measures proposed will create a legal basis for sustainable management of the animal world. These measures will be useful in the development of national programs for the sustainable use of wildlife, strengthening the dialogue of the authorities with the population to involve them in the process of sustainable use of wildlife objects in order to ensure a balance of economic, environmental and social interests.

Using SMS surveys to understand songbird ownership and shark product consumption in Indonesia

Abstract The unsustainable use of wildlife increases the risk of species extinction. In biodiversity-rich Indonesia, information on the scale of wildlife use is limited and requires further study. To address this, we explored the potential of text messaging (short message service; SMS) surveys to investigate levels and spatial patterns of domestic wildlife use, using songbird keeping and shark consumption as case studies because of their widespread occurrence in all 34 Indonesian provinces. We sent 340,000 messages for each survey during October–November 2018 and incentivized responses with a mobile data package as reward. We obtained survey response rates of 1.4% (songbird ownership) and 1.5% (shark consumption). Our results revealed an estimated 175.7 million songbirds being kept by 35% (80.4–86.6 million) of the Indonesian population and 33.5 million people (14% of the Indonesian population) to have consumed shark products in their lifetime. We identified hotspots of songbird ownership in several provinces in Java, corroborating previous findings, and new ones in the North Sumatra province, for example. The provinces of Maluku, Aceh and East Nusa Tenggara had the highest numbers of reported shark consumers per 1,000 people. Responses indicated a wide variety of shark products being consumed, highlighting the need for in-depth research to understand the explanatory factors behind these practices. These findings demonstrate the potential of SMS surveys to be a cost-effective approach for conducting large-scale studies on wildlife consumption patterns over a short period of time.

Corn Field Management for Wintering Waterfowl on Eastern Long Island, New York

Aim: A novel corn field management program to feed wintering waterfowl was investigated. Background: Decreased food availability for waterfowl on the Atlantic coast may necessitate novel management. Methods: Standing sections of corn were chopped using a brush hog once every two weeks after the close of waterfowl hunting season on Long Island, New York, February – March 2018 and 2019. Corn was sampled to determine initial yield and waterfowl and other wildlife use, corn depletion, and relationships between depletion and energy needs of waterfowl were determined. Results: The mean (± SE) initial yield was 5,156.0 ± 1,306.7 kg/ha. Canada geese accounted for 54% of all waterfowl use and mallards were twice as abundant at corn fields than American black ducks. Fields averaged 4.08 ± 0.20 ha, but ~50% less corn could have been planted to meet the energy needs of waterfowl in this study. However, 27% of sections chopped in the first two weeks were depleted to zero or near zero, whereas sections chopped in the last two weeks had 1,954.9 ± 1,309.9 kg/ha of corn. Conclusion: More corn could have been chopped early in winter and less as spring approached to meet the seasonal energy needs of waterfowl. Waterfowl using corn fields could gain fitness advantages, but a better understanding of diets, body condition, and seasonal stress, as well as the use of corn fields relative to other habitats by individual Canada geese and ducks, are needed. Results provide guidance on the delivery of corn planting and chopping programs to feed wintering waterfowl in the northeastern United States.

Genetic structure and gene flow in Myocastor coypus (Rodentia: Echimyidae) populations inhabiting a highly modified agroecosystem of the Pampas region

Abstract Assessing the genetic diversity and gene flow among populations in combination with ecological data provides valuable insight into the spatial use and genetic structure of wildlife. Anthropic impact generates landscape changes that threaten species by favouring their isolation in small patches and limiting their connectivity. However, in some cases, it can increase genetic exchange among wild populations. Here, we used a set of 16 microsatellites to study the genetic diversity, population genetic structure, and historical and current gene flow of coypu (Myocastor coypus) populations, a semi-aquatic rodent that inhabits watercourses of the highly anthropized agroecosystems of the Pampas region. Our results showed moderate to high levels of genetic diversity and revealed the existence of genetic structure among populations. Bayesian analysis showed different patterns of genetic structure among and within sampling sites. Also, the patterns of historical gene flow differed from that seen today. These results, together with previous studies, suggest that anthropic pressure, habitat fragmentation and ephemeral landscapes in a highly modified ecosystem could alter the dispersal patterns of coypus in their native range, which would otherwise be different in an environment with low anthropic impact. The results provide new information that could be used in effective conservation programmes.

Mammalian predator and prey responses to recreation and land use across multiple scales provide limited support for the human shield hypothesis.

Outdoor recreation is widespread, with uncertain effects on wildlife. The human shield hypothesis (HSH) suggests that recreation could have differential effects on predators and prey, with predator avoidance of humans creating a spatial refuge 'shielding' prey from people. The generality of the HSH remains to be tested across larger scales, wherein human shielding may prove generalizable, or diminish with variability in ecological contexts. We combined data from 446 camera traps and 79,279 sampling days across 10 landscapes spanning 15,840 km2 in western Canada. We used hierarchical models to quantify the influence of recreation and landscape disturbance (roads, logging) on ungulate prey (moose, mule deer and elk) and carnivore (wolf, grizzly bear, cougar and black bear) site use. We found limited support for the HSH and strong responses to recreation at local but not larger spatial scales. Only mule deer showed positive but weak landscape-level responses to recreation. Elk were positively associated with local recreation while moose and mule deer responses were negative, contrary to HSH predictions. Mule deer showed a more complex interaction between recreation and land-use disturbance, with more negative responses to recreation at lower road density or higher logged areas. Contrary to HSH predictions, carnivores did not avoid recreation and grizzly bear site use was positively associated. We also tested the effects of roads and logging on temporal activity overlap between mule deer and recreation, expecting deer to minimize interaction with humans by partitioning time in areas subject to more habitat disturbance. However, temporal overlap between people and deer increased with road density. Our findings highlight the complex ecological patterns that emerge at macroecological scales. There is a need for expanded monitoring of human and wildlife use of recreation areas, particularly multi-scale and -species approaches to studying the interacting effects of recreation and land-use change on wildlife.