Use Of Small Group Discussions Research Articles

Developing Students’ Speaking Skill through Small Group Discussion (SGD) Technique

The purpose of this research is to find out whether or not the use of Small Group Discussion (SGD) technique can develop speaking skill to the tenth grade students of SMA Negeri 1 Bolano Parigi Moutong District. This research used a quasi-experimental research design with 77 students as a sample selected by using the cluster sampling technique. Additionally, the data of this research was obtained through a test which was divided into pre-test and post-test. The mean pre-test score for the experimental group and the control group were 48.90 and 55.77. The mean post-test score for the experimental group and the control group were 73.90 and 60.04. The data was theoretically analyzed by applying the t-test formula where the degree of freedom (df) is 75. The result of statistical analysis shows that the t-test value is 3.19 while the t-table value is 1.99. The result of the research findings shows that the t-test value is higher than the t-table value. It implies that the research hypothesis is accepted. It means that the use of Small Group Discussion (SGD) technique can develop speaking skill to the tenth grade students of SMA Negeri 1 Bolano Parigi Moutong District.

Students’ Perceptions and Challenges in the Use of Small Group Discussion in English-Speaking Class Activities

Small Group Discussion (SGD) is one of the techniques that can be used in learning and teaching English speaking skills. This study aims to find out students' perceptions and the challenges students encountered when using SGD in their English-speaking activities at SMK Dirgantara Putra Bangsa. This study used mixed method approaches, and the instruments used in collecting data were questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Respondents in this study were 23 students (7 males and 16 females) from class X of SMK Dirgantara Putra Bangsa in the academic year 2023–2024 and through a purposive random sampling technique. Furthermore, a questionnaire was used to figure out students' perceptions, and semi-structured interviews were conducted to find out the challenges encountered by students when using SGD. Six respondents (5 females and 1 male) were selected in the interview session based on their scores, they are; two students with the highest scores, two students with middle scores, and two students with low scores to be interviewed. The semi-structured interview data were analyzed qualitatively using the interactive model proposed by Miles & Huberman (1994). The results of this study show that students' perceptions of using SGD can enhance their speaking skills. Meanwhile, the results of the interviews indicated that lack of vocabulary and self-confidence were challenges those students encountered in using SGD. This learning model may help students participate, engage, and enhance their confidence in speaking English, and teachers are aware of the importance of choosing the right learning model to achieve successful learning in the classroom are a few pedagogical implications of the present study.

Embracing a culture of talk: STEM teachers’ engagement in small-group discussions about photovoltaics

Abstract Background Small-group discussions are well established as an effective pedagogical tool to promote student learning in STEM classrooms. However, there are a variety of factors that influence how and to what extent K-12 teachers use small-group discussions in their classrooms, including both their own STEM content knowledge and their perceived ability to facilitate discussions. We designed the present study to specifically target these two factors in the context of photovoltaics, an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of all STEM disciplines with potential to yield widespread benefits related to the use of solar technologies as a sustainable, renewable energy source. Teachers engaged in a series of small-group discussions based on photovoltaic source material (e.g., scientific articles) to build both their STEM content knowledge and capability with discussions, promoting their potential to design and deliver STEM instruction in their own classrooms using small-group discussion. Results Overall, teachers productively engaged in rich STEM talk as they spent most of the time in the discussion asking authentic questions about photovoltaic topics in alignment with a variety of science and engineering disciplinary core ideas, responding to the questions with rich, elaborative talk, and taking on ownership of the discussions. Teachers also evidenced increases in their photovoltaic knowledge and their perceived capability to facilitate discussions. Finally, most teachers’ end-of-program lesson plans included the use of small-group discussions, and a subsample of teachers who completed a follow-up interview one year after the summer program reported greater enactment of discussion in their STEM classrooms. Conclusion Our manuscript forwards an important contribution that draws from a practice-based approach to professional development in a way that not only better prepares teachers on what to teach (i.e., through enhanced PV content knowledge), but it also supports their ability to implement this instruction into their classrooms more effectively (i.e., though the use of small-group discussion). As such, this manuscript illustrates an innovative pedagogical approach for potential use in supporting teacher education and informs ways to enable teachers to build enhanced curricula for their STEM students.

THE USE OF SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION AS LEARNING INTERACTION TO ACTIVATE THE SECOND YEAR STUDENTS TO SPEAK ENGLISH AT MACHINE DEPARTMENT OF SMK NEGERI 2 PAYAKUMBUH

This research was aimed to find out wether or not the useof small group discussion could activate the second year students of Machine Department of SMK Negeri 2 Payakumbuh to speak English. This research employed a pre experimental method, and it used one group pre test and post test design. Treatment (X) was given between pre-test (T1) and post-test (T2). The population of this study was the second year students of Machine Department of SMK Negeri 2 Payakumbuh, and the number of sample was 30 students. The instruments used in this study were observation checklist and speaking test. The finding of this study showed the use of small goup discussion could activate the students to speak English. It was indicated by the improvement of activities done by students from meeting to meeting as much as 93.19%. It was also indicated with the fact that the t-test value (10.740) was higher than the t-table value at significant level of 0.05 and degree of freedom n-1 (1.711). In other words, the use of small group discussion technique was able to give greater contributionin teaching and learning speaking. REFERENCES Aleen, D. E. (2001) Mimimizing the Perils of Small Group Discussion. Center for Teaching Excelent. Online (http://www.vcu.edu/cte/resources/nfrg/14_04minizing_peril_of.htm) Brown, Douglas (1994) Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. London: Prentice Hall International Ltd. Byrne, Donn (1995) Teaching Oral English. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. Canal in Richards and Schmidt (2002 Chastain, Kenneth (1976 ) Developing Second Language Skills. Third Edition. New York: McNally College Publishing. Clark, Herbert H. and Eve V. Clark (1977) Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Psycholingustics. San Diego: Kascourt Brace Jovanich. De Boer, John (1987) Basic Language: Message and Meaning. New York: Haper Row Publisher. Drekurs, Rudolf and B. Gunawan (1982) Maintaning Sanity in the Classroom: Management Technique. New York: Haper Collins Publishing. Frederick, E. (1993) A Plan for Small Group Discussion. Online (http://extension.missouri.edu/explore/common/dm0460.htm) Glistrap, Robert L. and Willian R. Martin (1975) Current Strategies for Teachers: A Resoruce for Personalizing Instruction. Santa Monica, California: Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc. Harmer, Jeremy (1998) How to Teach English. New York: Longman. Hatch, Evelyn and Anne Lazaraton (1991) The Research Manual. New York: Newbury House Publisher. Jabu, Baso (2000) Upaya Peningkatan Kemampuan Menyimak Siswa Kelas 1 SMU N2 Makassar melalui Teknik LWS (Listening-Writing-Speaking). Makassar: FBS Universitas Negeri Makassar. McKeachie, W. J.(1999) Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. Mikundan (2008) Active Speaking. Online (http://www.mikundan.com/portofolio/winstaru/wvcontents/jobaids/aecr/speak.html Muttakin, M. (1992) Activating the Students to Speak English through Pair Tasks in SMU 3 Ujung Pandang. Unpublished Thesis. Ujung Pandang: FPBS IKIP Ujung Pandang. Noni, Nurdin (2003) A Hybrid of Face to Face Teaching and Computer Assisted language Learning in ELT Based on Individual References. Unpublished Dissertation. Makassar: Pastgraduate Program of Hasanuddin University. Nunan, David (1993) Designing Tasks for Communication Classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press. O’driscoll, Nina and Adrian Pilbeam (1987). Meetings and Discussions. London: Longman Group UK Ltd. Rivers, M. W. (1981) Teaching Foreign Langauge Skills. Chicago: University of Michigan Press. Rosma.(2002) Improving Students’ Communicaive Competence through Group Discussion in the Second Year Students of SMUN 2 Maros. Unpublished Thesis. Makassar: FBS Universitas Negeri Makassar. Steven, Runnebohn, M. Jospeh Mazza, and B. Dan Curtis (1979) Communication for Problem Solving. New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc. Publisher. Ur, Penny (1996) A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory. Sydney: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

IMPROVING ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS THROUGH SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION

This research is aimed at inquiring the use of small group discussions in the improvement of speaking skills studied in classroom action research (CAR). The population of the research was the eighth-grade students of SMPN 2 Curug consist of thirty students. The researchers used one class as a control group. Based the result of this study, the researchers implemented the action in two cycles; every cycle consists of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. The first is planning, the researchers identified a problem. The second is acting, the researchers collected and analysed the data. The third is observing, in this stage the researchers developed a plan to make change and implemented these changes. This cycle reflects the components of action research. It is critical to consider the impact of the changes made when reflecting. The result of this research is the mean score of students on the speaking test before carrying out the Class Action Research (CAR) is 57,5 for pretest and post-test 64,7 in the first cycle, this is the student’s treatment. And in the second cycle 70,6 after using small group discussion. It means that the mean score of the post test is greater than the pre-test. Thus, this research that using small group discussion can improve students’ speaking ability for the eighth-year students of SMPN 2 Curug.

The Use of Small Group Discussion in Teaching Reading Comprehension at Junior High School

The background of this research is that the use of the small group discussion method is more effective than the preaching method in teaching reading comprehension. understanding because they can read more comprehensively with their friends in small groups and then discuss the information they have read. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of student learning outcomes by using small group discussions in learning reading comprehension. This study uses a quantitative method by giving tests, namely pre-test and post-test to twenty eighth grade students at SMP Muhammadiyah Camba. This research applied a pre-experimental design. The test given to students is in the form of multiple-choice in the form of narrative text reading. The results of this study indicate that the experiment conducted by the researcher on students affects learning outcomes by Using Small Group Discussions in teaching reading comprehension. The average value in the pre-tests is 49.25 while the post-tests have an average value of 82.75. It was provided in the value of the t-test (8.152) which was greater than the value of the t-table (2.093). It indicated that there were significant differences, this is also indicated H1 was accepted and H0 was rejected.

Learning method comparison between small-group discussion (SGD) and conventional to the knowledge improvement of midwifery department students

In 2013, the graduate competence of the midwifery department that fit current job demand was only 15%. Knowledge is one of the aspects of midwifery education quality. Small-Group Discussion (SGD) is one of the forms of students centered learning (SCL) where students are demanded to solve problems through a small group discussion. The object of this study is to figure out a comparison of knowledge improvement through the use of SGD or conventional methods. The method used in the study is quantitative of experimental pre-posttest design. The researcher divides the sample into two groups, the experimental group (19) is given an SGD approach and the control group (19) is given a conventional course approach. Based on the Independent Sample T-test, the value of Sig. (2-tailed) is 0.006 (<0.05). Hence, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between the average score of students’ knowledge level in the SGD group and the conventional group. The SGD group appears to have a higher improvement of average score, which is from 6.3 to 8.1 while the average score of the conventional group is from 6.1 to 6.8. Hence, it is considered that the SGD learning method can improve knowledge of midwifery students and can be used as an effective alternative method to achieve a student-centered learning system for other midwifery institutions.

IMPROVING SPEAKING ABILITY OF THE SECOND YEAR STUDENTS OF SMK NEGERI 1 SINJAI THROUGH SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION

The objective of this research is to find out the improvement of studentsspeaking ability through small group discussion. The researcher applied quasiexperimental method. The population of this research is the second year students ofSMK Negeri 1 Sinjai. The researcher used total sampling technique, where two classeswere taken as sample, class of 2 AK 1 consisting of 20 students as the experimentalgroup, and class of 2 AK 2 with 20 students as a control class. The findings of the studyshowed that small group discussion activated the students. The result of data analysisshows that t-test value is greater than t-table value (4.81 > 2.042) at level of significance(p) = .05 with degree of freedom (df) = 19. It means that there is a significant differenceof speaking skill between two groups and it indicates that null hypothesis (H0) isrejected and alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted. It is also supported by theobservation checklist analysis that shows the students’ progress from each treatment.Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of small group discussion can improve thestudents’ speaking skill.

IMPROVING SPEAKING SKILLS THROUGH SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION AT ELEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SMA PLUS MUNIRUL ARIFIN NW PRAYA

This study was aimed at finding the effect of small group discussion in improving speaking skills at the seventh year students of SMA Plus NW. This research was conducted as quasi-experiment using a quantitative approach with One-Group Pretest-Posttest design. The population of the research was the eleventh-grade students of SMA Plus Munirul Arifin NW Praya in academic year 2018/2019. Each class consists of 28 students. The total population was 95 students. In this study, the researcher took one class as a sample. The class was eleventh Grade of MIPA 1 consisting of 28 students as the experiment. The researcher gave treatment to the experimental group and it used Small Group Discussion as the treatment of teaching speaking. The purpose of using the Small Group Discussion was to give new inspiration that can be applied in teaching speaking. Referring to the result pre-test and post-test showed that the sig (2 tailed) > 0.05, it means that the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is accepted. So the use of Small Group Discussion in teaching speaking is effective. The value of t-test was higher than the t-value of t-table (t-test 8.5148 > t-table 2.006). It showed that teaching speaking using small group discussion has a positive effect to improve students' speaking skill. Besides that, the result of the mean of post-test was higher than the mean of pre-test (M2 = 18.43 > M1 = 14.25). It means that teaching speaking by using small group discussion was more effective than teaching speaking without using small group discussion. In addition, small group discussion can improve students' speaking skill in the eleventh-grade students of SMA Plus Munirul Arifin NW Praya.

The Use of Small Group Discussion and Snowballing Techniques: An Effort to enhance EFL Students’ Self –Efficacy and Speaking Skill

This paper is aimed at discussing on Small Group Discussion and Snowballing techniques enhance students’ self-efficacy and speaking skill on hortatory exposition text at class XI State Islamic Senior High School 1 Padang in academic year 2016/2017. The experimental research type and factorial design were used to conduct the research. Two groups of experimental classes, who were cluster randomly selected, were taught by different techniques. First group was taught by Snowballing and second one was taught by Small Group Discussion. Both groups were given post-test after they got different treatments to find out whether both two groups shown differences and the effectiveness of the different treatments. Speaking test and questionnaires were used to collect the data. The t- test and two ways ANOVA were used to analyze the data. The results of the research have shown that students who were taught by snowballing were better than those who were taught by small group discussion in speaking skill on hortatory text. The students’ self-efficacy in speaking skill that was taught by snowballing was higher than that was taught by small group discussion. The students with high self-efficacy got higher speaking score than students with low self-efficacy. It is concluded that Snowballing technique gives more significant effect on students self-efficacy in speaking skill than Small Group discussion one. It is recommended that English teachers have to use Snowballing technique to increase students’ self-efficacy and skill in speaking.

IMPROVING SPEAKING USING SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION

This research is aimed at identifying how the use of small group discussion can improve the speaking skill of the tenth-grade students of a state senior high school in Surakarta and the classroom situations when small group discussion is implemented in speaking class. A classroom research was carried out from March until June 2013 in the X-4 class of a state senior high school in Surakarta. The data were collected through observation, interview, questionnaire, and tests (pre-test and post-test). The qualitative data were analyzed by assembling the data, coding the data, comparing the data, building interpretation, and reporting the outcomes. Meanwhile, the quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The findings show that small group discussion improved students’ speaking skill and classroom situation. Considering the research finding, it is suggested that other teachers use small group discussion to overcome the students’ problem in learning speaking.

Global Collaboration in Nursing and Midwifery “Talking it out”

Collaboration between disciplines is essential to furthering clinical and academic progress in healthcare, particularly for Nursing and Midwifery. With rapid advances in health care related technology, additional options for cross- continental interactions present themselves. This article provides a description of a discussion between Nurses and Midwives engaged in a formal program of capacity building and skills transfer. Nurses and Midwives from Rwanda, the United States and the diaspora discussed definitions of collaboration along with identification of specific barriers and facilitators to efforts at global collaboration. Key findings include an increased need for cross-cultural and intergenerational activities to promote understanding while increasing productivity. This article provides an example of a strategy used to promote collaboration among nurses and midwives in Eastern Africa. The approach took advantage of the Global Innovations in Nursing and Midwifery Conference , which brought together over 300 nurses from Eastern Africa, as an opportunity to unite nurses and midwives from Eastern Africa to discuss issues of importance to nursing and midwifery through the use of small group discussions. The focus of these discussions, Nurses and Midwives: Talking it Out , was to explore the concepts of global collaboration among practicing and student nurses and midwifes. The small groups were established by specialty areas of practice and the dialogues were coordinated and facilitated by group leaders. The goal was to discuss ways to increase collective practice. Keywords: global collaboration, nursing issues, human resources for health (HRH), nursing and midwifery, Rwanda

Sentencing and public confidence in Australia: The dynamics and foci of small group deliberations

This study is the first of its kind in Australia to use the deliberative small group methodology to explore participants’ deeper, nuanced thoughts on specific criminal justice issues in order to gain insight into the underlying beliefs that influence people’s opinions on sentencing. The use of small group discussions allows an analysis of the dynamics of people’s interactions and the potential of these to elicit deeper, more thoughtful deliberation. Participants’ comments around two policy areas – mandatory sentencing and the use of alternatives to imprisonment – were founded on concerns about the need for judges to tailor the sentence to fit the specific circumstances of each case. The methodology itself has shown that people may change their initial opinions on complex issues when given the opportunity to discuss and reflect on their beliefs.

The Effects of Increased Workloads on Online Instruction

The workload increase for California State University instructors has been significant, as has been the reduction in resources and support. Online instructors are facing the same set of circumstances as their campus-based peers, yet the impact of said circumstances has not been fully realized. Still most instructors want to do be effective in their teaching practices and will do what it takes to facilitate student learning. This paper examines the impact of budget cuts on online instructors, including increases in online class sizes and loss of student –instructor interaction. The research is clear regarding the importance of interaction in relation to academic success; however, it is mixed with regard to optimal online class size. The author suggests strategies to maintain teaching effectiveness during the current crisis by increasing interaction through the use of small group discussions, the use of facilitators, etc.

Talking Science: The research evidence on the use of small group discussions in science teaching

This paper reports the findings of two systematic reviews of the use and effects of small group discussions in high school science teaching. Ninety‐four studies were included in an overview (systematic map) of work in the area, and 24 studies formed the basis of the in‐depth reviews. The reviews indicate that there is considerable diversity in the topics used to promote small group discussions. They also demonstrate that students often struggle to formulate and express coherent arguments, and demonstrate a low level of engagement with tasks. The reviews suggest that groups function more purposefully, and understanding improves most, when specifically constituted such that differing views are represented, when some form of training is provided for students on effective group work, and when help in structuring discussions is provided in the form of “cues”. Single‐sex groups function more purposefully than mixed‐sex groups, though improvements in understanding are independent of gender composition of groups. Finally, the reviews demonstrate very clearly that, for small group discussions to be effective, teachers and students need to be given explicit teaching in the skills associated with the development of arguments and the characteristics associated with effective group discussions. In addition to the substantive findings, the paper also reports on key features of the methods employed to gather and analyse data. Of particular note are the two contrasting approaches to data analysis, one adopting a grounded theory approach and the other drawing on established methods of discourse analysis.

An exploratory survey of undergraduate nursing students' experiences of group work within a problem-based curriculum.

Problem-based Learning is a learner-centered approach to education which encourages student participation and group work in the learning process. This method of self-directed learning is facilitated by the use of small-group discussions. This being the case, it is important for groups to function effectively in order for this learning to occur. These small groups are guided by a facilitator and utilize real-life problems from the clinical settings. An exploratory survey using open-ended questionnaires was conducted amongst senior nursing students at the University of Natal, and this focussed on their experiences of group work. The students described their best and worst experiences as a member of a group, as well as what they found most irritating and most appreciated about the group work. The students also highlighted what they expected from the group and in turn what they were willing to do for the group.

Prospects of Teaching in Pathology 1, Abstract 138–141, Symposium

A variety of pressures to change curriculum have resulted in revision of pathology teaching in most medical schools in the United States. Responses obtained from 71% of schools on a recent survey of pathology teaching indicate the following: There are wide variations in the extent of use of various teaching modalities with resulting emergence of different teaching formats which can be categorized as “traditional,” “enhanced traditional,” predominantly “problem based” or “case oriented,” entirely “problem based,” or some form of “hybrid” of traditional and problem based. The traditional lecture and laboratory continue to be the primary modes of teaching in the vast majority (74%) of schools, however, 53% also use other approaches, eg, small group discussion, case studies, or conferences to enhance instruction. The lecture remains an important component of instruction in all major models. The form and extent of the laboratory use varies remarkably from minimal to large number of hours of instruction. The laboratory material is incorporated into small group discussion or conferences in many schools. The use of small group discussions (presently, by 79% of schools) has increased since the last survey conducted in 1986. The mean curricular time (presently 188 hours) has dropped, however, it is not easy to quantify pathology teaching in many schools with increasing integration. Instruction is entirely integrated, multidisciplinary in 28% of schools. Computer-aided instruction is used in some form to varying extents in 66% of schools, with the majority using it as a supplementary tool. There are persistent concerns about faculty time, and high student-faculty ratio.

The problem-based learning tutor: Teacher? Facilitator? Evaluator?

Despite the structural heterogeneity of problem-based learning (PBL) curricula, most PBL schools have embraced self-directed learning, emphasizing the use of small-group discussion and integration of the basic medical sciences with clinical problems. Self-directed learning is but one of the many terms such as discovery method or study-centred education adopted by authors since Dewey to describe an educational approach that places the learner in control of his or her learning (Knowles, 1975). The putative bene® ts of self-directed learning include enhanced opportunities to elaborate one’s knowledge through active involvement and verbalization, enhanced motivation through an increase in relevance and personal control, and the practice of skills needed in lifelong learning (Schmidt, 1983). In this educational milieu, the role of the `teacher’ requires revision; new skills are required of the teaching faculty so that they are willing and competent to allow students to take an active role in guiding their own learning and in teaching one another (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). This review explores the literature that has developed around the de® nition of the teacher or tutor role in `facilitating’ the learning of students in a PBL setting. Several controversies have arisen over the optimal role of the faculty person in facilitating a PBL tutorial group, including level of participation, content knowledge and involvement in student evaluation. While it appears that there is probably no completely satisfactory resolution of these controversies, from a review of the frequently con icting pieces of evidence, an attempt will be made to synthesize from the literature a coherent picture of an effective tutor in the PBL setting.

Teaching of pathology in United States medical schools, 1996/1997 survey

A variety of pressures to change curriculum have resulted in revision of pathology teaching in most medical schools in the United States. Responses obtained from 71% of schools on a recent survey of pathology teaching indicate the following: There are wide variations in the extent of use of various teaching modalities with resulting emergence of different teaching formats which can be categorized as “traditional,” “enhanced traditional,” predominantly “problem based” or “case oriented,” entirely “problem based,” or some form of “hybrid” of traditional and problem based. The traditional lecture and laboratory continue to be the primary modes of teaching in the vast majority (74%) of schools, however, 53% also use other approaches, eg, small group discussion, case studies, or conferences to enhance instruction. The lecture remains an important component of instruction in all major models. The form and extent of the laboratory use varies remarkably from minimal to large number of hours of instruction. The laboratory material is incorporated into small group discussion or conferences in many schools. The use of small group discussions (presently, by 79% of schools) has increased since the last survey conducted in 1986. The mean curricular time (presently 188 hours) has dropped, however, it is not easy to quantify pathology teaching in many schools with increasing integration. Instruction is entirely integrated, multidisciplinary in 28% of schools. Computer-aided instruction is used in some form to varying extents in 66% of schools, with the majority using it as a supplementary tool. There are persistent concerns about faculty time, and high student-faculty ratio.

The Analysis of Verbal Exchanges in Small Group Teaching

Abstract Many lecturers would probably claim that one of the most difficult aspects of their role is to make effective use of small group discussions since these tend to be of an unpredictable and open‐ended nature which demands spontaneous adjustment and response. The difficulty is compounded if the lecturer does not have a clear understanding of his own role in, and his objectives for, the group. This article describes a relatively simple category system for the analysis of verbal exchanges in such situations. It is argued that, for the purpose of staff development (rather than research), ease of use is an important criterion, and that some sacrifice of sophistication can be accepted in the interests of practicability.