Use Of Saline Groundwater Research Articles

Treatment of Saline Irrigation Water Using a Sulfate-Reducing Bioreactor Coupled with an Iron-Based Desalination Reactor

Recent advances in alternative water desalination technologies have become increasingly common, due in part to expanding water scarcity and the ability to deliver usable water without the high energy cost and advanced infrastructure required of traditional desalination technologies such as reverse osmosis (RO). One such emerging technology is iron-based desalination or the use of nano- (or micron-sized) metals (principally iron) to desalinate water. In this study, iron-based desalination was coupled with passive sulfate reduction technology (SRB) to partially treat saline irrigation water similar in composition to that encountered in the San Joaquin Valley, California, USA. Water scarcity, especially in the southwestern United States, is driving an effort to identify and use less expensive but effective desalination methods to allow the use of saline groundwater, seawater, and impounded saline agricultural drainage and runoff for crop growth. The system described here used a synthetic water mimicking a typical saline irrigation water; this was then routed through a sulfate-reducing bioreactor to remove the sulfate prior to entry into an N-ZVM reactor for removal of Na and Cl. Sulfate at high concentrations can inhibit Na and Cl removal in N-ZVM reactors. The results showed that the sulfate was reduced from 2500 mg/L to less than 250 mg/L in the bioreactor, which allowed the N-ZVM to reduce the Na and Cl by 50%. This allowed the conductivity to decrease from 9.2 mS to about 5 mS. Synthetic irrigation water without sulfate removal was only desalinated by about 10%. The observed change in conductivity, sodium, and chloride content allowed the discharged water to be used for irrigation of many field crops and some vegetables. This paper provides reactor development, manufacture, and performance information including recommendations for continued performance increases.

Effect of temporal increment in salinity of inland saline groundwater on growth performance, survival, metabolic and osmoregulatory responses of juveniles of Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822)

Conjunctive use of saline groundwater and surface water has been employed in agriculture sector as an operational strategy to preserve water. In the present study, the effect of temporal increment in salinity of inland saline groundwater (ISGW) on growth, survival, physiological, and haemato-biochemical responses of rohu (Labeo rohita) juveniles was examined. The five treatments were assigned with a temporal IGSW salinity increment for 160 days viz., T1 (0.1‰ on daily basis), T2 (0.1‰ for every two days), T3 (0.1‰ for every three days), T4 (0.1‰ for every four days), T5 (0.1‰ for every five days) with C1 (Control 1; 0.0‰) and C2 (Control 2: 4‰). No significant (p > 0.05) difference was found in growth performance between controls and T5, however, the growth rate was determined to be concealed significantly (p < 0.05) from T1 to T4. Both controls and T5 had the highest (100%) survival rates and the lowest was in T1 (5%). In all the treatments except T5, shortening the acclimatization time considerably altered growth and feed utilization in rohu. The hepatic aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, superoxide dismutase activity, and catalase activity in rohu significantly increased with decreasing acclimation period. The activity of Na+/K+-ATPase in gill significantly increased with decreasing acclimation period. Similar to this, with a shorter acclimatization period, serum lysozyme activity decreased significantly. The acclimation period had a substantial impact on serum biochemical and stress parameters (serum cortisol and serum glucose), and these values varied significantly between treatments. The result of the present study indicates that rohu can be successfully cultured in ISGW environments by a temporal increase in salinity level at 7.2‰ (T5) without statistically significant adverse effects on fish performance. In the present study, the temporal increment in salinity levels showed that 80 to 93% survival rates could be achieved in ISGW with salinities up to 12‰ suggesting that unutilised ISGW could be used safely for sustainable aquaculture.

Salt Removal through Residue-Filled Cut-Soiler Simulated Preferential Shallow Subsurface Drainage Improves Yield, Quality and Plant Water Relations of Mustard (Brassica juncea L.)

Soil salinity and the use of saline groundwater are two major constraints in crop production, which covers a ~1.0 billion ha area of arid and semi-arid regions. The improved drainage function of soil can modify the salty growing environment for higher agricultural production. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of cut-soiler-constructed rice residue-filled preferential shallow subsurface drainage (PSSD) to improve the drainage function and its effect on the yield, quality and plant–water relations of mustard over 2019–2021. Cut-soiler-simulated drains were made in a semi-controlled lysimeter (2 × 2 × 3; L*W*H m) as the main plot treatment in a double replicated split–split experiment with two soil types (subplot) and three irrigation water salinities (4, 8 and 12 dS m−1) as the sub-sub-plot treatment. The drainage volume of variable salinity (EC), dependent on the total water input, was substantially higher in the rainy season (April to October), i.e., 16.6, 7.76 and 12.0% during 2018, 2019 and 2020, with 1.7, 0.32 and 0.77 kg salt removal per lysimeter, compared to the post-rainy season. The mustard seed, straw and biological yields were improved by 31.4, 14.41 and 18.08%, respectively, due to a positive effect on plant–water relations. The mustard seeds produced in the cut-soiler-treated plots recorded higher oil, crude fiber and protein contents and a lower erucic acid content. The increase in salt load, by higher-salinity irrigation water, was also efficiently managed by using cut-soiler PSSD. It was found that the saline irrigation water up to 12.0 dS m−1 can be used under such PSSD without any extra salt loading. The present study showed the potential of cut-soiler PSSD in root zone salinity management by improving drainage in salt-affected arid regions.

Biochar Reduces the Adverse Effect of Saline Water on Soil Properties and Wheat Production Profitability

The goal of this study is to assess the use of saline groundwater in combination with soil amendments to increase the efficiency of wheat production in new agricultural soil in Egypt. The experiment was conducted during the two consecutive growing seasons, 2019/2020 and 2020/2021, at the Shandaweel Agricultural Research Station, Sohag, Egypt. In this study, plants of Shandaweel 1 spring bread wheat cultivar were grown under the combinations of the two water treatments, i.e., freshwater (307.2 ppm) and saline water (3000 ppm (NaCl + MgCl2)) representing groundwater in Egypt delivered by drip irrigation and the two biochar rates, i.e., zero and 4.8 ton/ha as a soil amendment. The cob corn biochar (CCB) was synthesized by using the slow pyrolysis process (one hour at 350 °C). The results revealed that saline water reduced the grain yield ratio by 8.5%, 11.0%, and 9.7% compared to non-saline water during seasons 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 and over seasons, respectively. Concerning, combined over seasons, the biochar addition enhanced the grain yield by 5.6% and 13.8% compared to non-biochar addition under fresh and saline irrigation water conditions, respectively. Thus, the results indicated and led to a preliminary recommendation that saline groundwater is a viable source of irrigation water and that biochar seemed to alleviate salinity stress on wheat production and in reclaimed soils of Egypt.

Water Quality Threats, Perceptions of Climate Change and Behavioral Responses among Farmers in the Ethiopian Rift Valley

This work aims to assess water quality for irrigated agriculture, alongside perceptions and adaptations of farmers to climate change in the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER). Climate change is expected to cause a rise in temperature and variability in rainfall in the region, reducing surface water availability and raising dependence on groundwater. The study data come from surveys with 147 farmers living in the Ziway–Shala basin and water quality assessments of 162 samples from groundwater wells and surface water. Most groundwater samples were found to be unsuitable for long term agricultural use due to their high salinity and sodium adsorption ratio, which has implications for soil permeability, as well as elevated bicarbonate, boron and residual sodium carbonate concentrations. The survey data indicate that water sufficiency is a major concern for farmers that leads to frequent crop failures, especially due to erratic and insufficient rainfall. An important adaptation mechanism for farmers is the use of improved crop varieties, but major barriers to adaptation include a lack of access to irrigation water, credit or savings, appropriate seeds, and knowledge or information on weather and climate conditions. Local (development) agents are identified as vital to enhancing farmers’ knowledge of risks and solutions, and extension programs must therefore continue to promote resilience and adaptation in the area. Unfortunately, much of the MER groundwater that could be used to cope with declining viability of rainfed agriculture and surface water availability, is poor in quality. The use of saline groundwater could jeopardize the agricultural sector, and most notably commercial horticulture and floriculture activities. This study highlights the complex nexus of water quality and sufficiency challenges facing the agriculture sector in the region, and should help decision-makers to design feasible strategies for enhancing adaptation and food security.

The Analysis of Water Quality Using Canadian Water Quality Index: Green Belt Project/Kerbala-Iraq

During the last five decades, a huge amount of water pollutants has been recorded in all water resources around the world. Therefore, the water quality has become an important indicator affecting the vitality and productivity of plants, which requires an effective technique to monitor all these pollutants. The main objective of this study is to assess the validity of groundwater for wells located within the boundaries of the Green Belt area in Karbala city/Iraq for irrigation of palm and olive trees. Whereas, the use of saline groundwater as an alternative to available fresh water will promote the sustainable development of water resources. The technique of Water Quality Index (WQI) is a reliable and widely used tool for assessing water quality for various sources, including groundwater. In this study, the Canadian water quality index (CWQI) model was applied to provide a database for planning and monitoring the quality of groundwater in wells located in the study area. Groundwater samples were taken from these wells and tested to find seven parameters which were; pH, CL, Mg, HCO3, EC, Na and Ca. The CWQI values of groundwater for the studied wells ranged from 30 to 35. According to the CWQI scale, the groundwater of all wells is classified as poor water. Therefore, the groundwater of all wells in the study area must be treated before it is used for the purpose of irrigation of palm and olive trees. This study concluded that to ensure good irrigation management in the study area, future changes of groundwater in the study area must be monitored.

Sustainable management of a cropping system under salt stress conditions (Korba, Cap-Bon, Tunisia).

Korba is a coastal region and the main production area for strawberries, tomatoes, and peppers in Tunisia. Due to the use of saline groundwater in irrigation, soil salinization increases in the area. Farmers are therefore forced to reduce the salinity in the soil by adopting a suitable water management strategy "blended water," with the appropriate irrigation system "drip irrigation," and new farming techniques "crop combinations and crop rotations" to achieve sustainability. Based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of the groundwater (5.05dS/m) and freshwater (1.7dS/m), in our pilot plot, we determine that the blended water used in irrigation must contain 28.55% of groundwater with 71.45% freshwater to have a 50%strawberry yield potential because strawberry is the most salt-sensitive crop produced in the region. The strawberry-pepper's combination is a way to improve farmers' incomes with a 200% intensification rate, taking advantage of the rains and the availability of surface water during the wet season. However, the soil salinity used to increase under these crops from 1.28 dS/m in November 2018 to 3.04 dS/m of soil EC in September 2019. This is beyond the strawberry salt tolerance threshold (1 dS/m). Even after planting summer crops, tomatoes, and peppers, the rate of evolution of soil salinity exceeds 200% (~ 4.5dS/m) and 122% (~ 3dS/m), respectively. Therefore, the rotation becomes necessary to reduce the soil salinity and thus prepare the soil for the next planting of tomatoes, peppers, and strawberry-pepper's combination. The introduction of rainfed crops or fallow in the agricultural rotation system helped farmers to reduce soil salinity with about 56% and 67.2% for crop rotations including summer crops and the strawberry-pepper's combination, respectively, with a return period of 1year.

Soil and groundwater salinization in Siwa Oasis and management opportunities: twenty year change detection and assessment

The use of saline groundwater in irrigation due to the limited availability of fresh water is one of the main causes of land degradation in arid and semi-arid environments. The agro-ecosystem of Siwa Oasis was monitored over a period of two decades. A stable isotope study, oxygen-18 and deuterium, indicated that Siwa groundwater is of meteoric origin. Siwa has two groundwater aquifers: a shallow limestone aquifer, LA, with highly saline water (Total Dissolved Solids, TDS, up to 6848 mg/L), and a deep Nubian sandstone aquifer, NSA, containing fresh water (TDS 192–256 mg/L). The sodium adsorption ratio, SAR, of LA water is high with an average value of 13.9 while the SAR of NSA water is low with an average value of 2.1. Schoeller and Piper’s diagrams showed that LA water was of sodium, chloride-sulfate type, while the NSA water was classified as sodium carbonate and bicarbonate water type. Saturation Index (SI) calculations showed that both the LA and NSA water were undersaturated to halite minerals. Consequently, there is room to accommodate extra Na+ and Cl− from halite. Most Siwa land is irrigated with LA water due to low drilling costs. LA groundwater and Siwa soils were found to be deteriorating dramatically and the average water and soil salinity increased by 30–36% per decade. No change in NSA water quality was recorded over the same period. Interventions for the restoration of the deteriorated Siwa ecosystem are summarized. The approach conducted in this study can be repeated in similar ecosystems.

Identification of resource management domain-specific best practices in the agriculture sector for the Mewat region of Haryana, India

Agriculture is a complex system which takes into consideration the area-specific biophysical and socioeconomic conditions. However, the existing development and implementation of agriculture-based technology and programs are not area specific. One of the key challenges in this regard is the lack of a proper methodology to identify the area specificity. Resource management domain (RMD) method that incorporates both biophysical and socioeconomic condition has emerged out as a better way to identify area-specific best practices. The RMD method results in the delineation of area RMDs having similar management requirements for the similar land use. In the present study, the RMD method has been used to identify RMD-specific best practices. Focused group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in the delineated RMDs in order to investigate the farmer’s specific needs. The findings of the FGDs were compared with the existing government programs and shared with the local administrative authorities. The local administrative authorities have proposed few programs to bridge the identified gaps between the existing programs and the RMD-specific farming needs; however, it was realized that the proposed programs, though important, are not sufficient enough to completely address the identified RMD-specific challenges. Therefore, they were complemented with the best practices which emerged out from the FGDs, the literature review conducted in the similar settings, based on the interviews with the experts who are well aware of the district. The identified best practices include in situ and ex situ rainwater conservation, use of micro-irrigation system, minimal use of saline groundwater, adoption of a diversified farming system, shift to less water-intensive and saline-tolerant crop varieties, efficient use of fertilizers, crop residue retention, solar irrigation tube wells, community management of forest and water harvesting structures. A road map is also recommended for the implementation of these practices by the district authorities. The findings of the study thus provide an important pathway for the development, management and monitoring of agricultural and natural resource conservation programs.

Saline Groundwater from Coastal Aquifers As a Source for Desalination.

Reverse osmosis (RO) seawater desalination is currently a widespread means of closing the gap between supply and demand for potable water in arid regions. Currently, one of the main setbacks of RO operation is fouling, which hinders membrane performance and induces pressure loss, thereby reducing system efficiency. An alternative water source is saline groundwater with salinity close to seawater, pumped from beach wells in coastal aquifers which penetrate beneath the freshwater-seawater interface. In this research, we studied the potential use of saline groundwater of the coastal aquifer as feedwater for desalination in comparison to seawater using fieldwork and laboratory approaches. The chemistry, microbiology and physical properties of saline groundwater were characterized and compared with seawater. Additionally, reverse osmosis desalination experiments in a cross-flow system were performed, evaluating the permeate flux, salt rejection and fouling propensities of the different water types. Our results indicated that saline groundwater was significantly favored over seawater as a feed source in terms of chemical composition, microorganism content, silt density, and fouling potential, and exhibited better desalination performance with less flux decline. Saline groundwater may be a better water source for desalination by RO due to lower fouling potential, and reduced pretreatment costs.

Mapping soil salinity in irrigated land using optical remote sensing data

Soil salinity caused by natural or human-induced processes is certainly a severe environmental problem that already affects 400 million hectares and seriously threatens an equivalent surface. Salinization causes negative effects on the ground; it affects agricultural production, infrastructure, water resources and biodiversity. In semi-arid and arid areas, 21% of irrigated lands suffer from waterlogging, salinity and/or sodicity that reduce their yields. 77 million hectares are saline soils induced by human activity, including 58% in the irrigated areas. In the irrigated perimeter of Tadla plain (central Morocco), the increased use of saline groundwater and surface water, coupled with agricultural intensification leads to the deterioration of soil quality. Experimental methods for monitoring soil salinity by direct measurements in situ are very demanding of time and resources, and also very limited in terms of spatial coverage. Several studies have described the usefulness of remote sensing for mapping salinity by its synoptic coverage and the sensitivity of the electromagnetic signal to surface soil parameters. In this study, we used an image of the TM Landsat sensor and field measurements of electrical conductivity (EC), the correlation between the image data and field measurements allowed us to develop a semi-empirical model allowing the mapping of soil salinity in the irrigated perimeter of Tadla plain. The validation of this model by the ground truth provides a correlation coefficient r² = 0.90. Map obtained from this model allows the identification of different salinization classes in the study area.

Potential use of saline groundwater for irrigation in the Murray hydrogeological basin of Australia

Scarce surface water resources have led farmers to use groundwater heavily for irrigation in the Murray-Darling Basin of Australia. Saline groundwater is emerging as an alternative source of water for irrigation. This study examines the potential use of saline groundwater for a range of crops. Among cropping groups modelled, oilseeds and grain crops are considerably tolerant to saline groundwater in terms of the change yield with salinity levels, although the tolerance levels are crop-specific. Based on availability of saline groundwater, coarse textured soil, deep water table and moderate rainfall, this study also revealed that twenty-two percent or seven million hectares of the Murray hydrogeological basin in the southern Murray-Darling Basin may be suitable for the saline groundwater irrigation. However, it is also noted that the use of saline groundwater is only feasible for saline-tolerant crops under proper drainage management and by observing suitable precautionary measures. Therefore, the use of saline groundwater in irrigation requires careful attention to monitor the build up of salt in the root zone.

Spatiotemporal changes in soil salinity in a drip-irrigated field

We explored the spatiotemporal variability in soil salinity using in situ data of soil electrical conductivity (EC) sampled on six dates in 2007 in a drip-irrigated cotton field. Descriptive statistics and geostatistics were used to analyze the data, and the kriging method was applied to map the spatial patterns of EC. The results showed that EC was negatively correlated with cotton yield ( p < 0.01) and was the key limiting factor for cotton growth under the drip irrigation system. Mean EC increased during the pre-irrigation period and decreased in the drip-irrigation stages. The coefficient of variation (CV i ) showed an increasing trend from 45.2 to 64.5%. In the cotton growth stages, the effective ranges of spatial correlation generally decreased from 138.84 to 102.76 m. The six smoothed contour maps displayed quite similar patterns, with high salinity in the eastern and southern sections and low salinity in the western and northern sections of the study area. The topography and climate highly influenced the spatiotemporal variability of soil salinity. The widespread practices of plastic film mulching, organic matter and drip irrigation also affect soil salinity. The use of saline groundwater for irrigation requires that surface soil salinity be controlled by leaching and draining excess water and salt. While cotton can be safely planted in this region, other crops with low thresholds of salinity tolerance cannot be planted in early spring until the surface salinity level decreases.

Groundwater and soil salinity variations in a canal command area in Pakistan

AbstractThis three‐year study was undertaken to investigate the groundwater and soil salinity variation in a canal‐irrigated area. Water and soil samples were collected along 54 tertiary canals located on six secondary canals (two each at head, middle and tail end) of a main canal. Data of crop yield and income of the farmers were also collected. The results show that electrical conductivity (EC) of groundwater increased from head to lower reaches along all the irrigation channels, i.e. main, the secondary and the tertiary canals. Similarly, the soil water ECe also increased with increased distance from the head of the irrigation system. Reduced canal water supply at lower reaches of the irrigation system forced the downstream water users to pump more groundwater, thereby increasing their irrigation cost. The deteriorating groundwater quality further adds misery to the downstream farmers by degrading productivity of their lands caused by excessive use of saline groundwater. Location of the water users along the canal irrigation system had an impact on their crop yield as well as income and these parameters decreased with increased distance from the head of the irrigation channels. For example, the net income of the tail‐end farmers varied from 43% to 59% of the head‐end farmers. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Use of saline ground water for intensive rearing of Ruditapes philippinarum juveniles in a nursery system

Saline ground water was used as a thermal source for intensive rearing of juveniles of Ruditapes philippinarum and as a source of nutrients for phytoplankton production. In experiments concerning growth at different seasons, controlled factors were density of juveniles, flow of water, phytoplankton concentration, temperature and frequency of feeding. Their effects on growth and mortality were classified through correspondence analysis, analysis of multiway contingency tables and analysis of variance. An optimal stratery for summer and winter rearing was then defined. The different strategies are discussed in biological terms, with reference to the literature. Observed growth rates in this intensive culture were compared with available data for artificially fed and naturally reared populations.

Managing salinity through conjunctive use of water resources

Planned development and use of saline ground water in conjunction with limited fresh water supplies is essential in arid and semi-arid for reclamation and management of waterlogged saline lands. A decision model to aid in planning the optimal use of imported surface water and the salinej groynd water is formulated. The model is applied to a typical waterlogged saline area in the command of Western Yamuna Canal in Haryana (India) to determine optimal land and water allocation and the resulting salt and water balance in the unsaturated (crop root zone) and saturated zone (aquifers). The programme indicates that progressive development of ground-water will assist in reclamationof waterlogged saline lands and can increase farm income.

Scientific advances most needed for progress in irrigation

In the last half-century the application of scientific advances in irrigation has been largely confined to the developed countries. In the vast irrigated areas of Asia, progress in the adoption of new technology has been disappointing except for the introduction of new crop varieties. The massive expansion in the total irrigated area of Asia has been largely based on traditional technology. The world is waking up to this technological gap and beginning to analyse its causes. The current gap is illustrated by the fact that irrigated cereal yields in Asia are less than half those of the U.S.A. or Australia. In Africa, the gap is even wider. It is argued that many recent technologies, including those of micro-irrigation, systems analysis and automatic control structures, are not applicable to Asia and Africa. We have to research new ways of applying them and we need to expand the science of irrigation in more appropriate forms. Among the needs for scientific advance considered in the paper are improved water management, use of saline groundwater, lower cost methods of subsoil drainage and improved management technology involving wider and better use of communications and management information systems. The paper examines these and other issues and suggests high-priority topics and strategies for research and development.

Saline Groundwater Management and Optimal Cropping Pattern

ABSTRACT In areas having scarce canal water and poor quality groundwater, an opportunity exists to use the two sources conjunctively for irngation water supply. However, the use of saline water, either in isolation or by mixing with canal water, threatens soil salinization, unless steps are taken to protect the salt balance in the root zone. A deterministic linear programming model has been developed, incorporating both leaching requirements and the salinity response function of crops, to find the optimal cropping pattern and optimum use of saline groundwater. The model was applied to a canal command area.

The Use of Saline Groundwater in Arid Areas

SUMMARYAn account is given of large-scale trials of the use of saline water for the trickle irrigation of forest trees in the desert areas of Abu Dhabi, in eastern Arabia. Water of salinities up to an equivalent of 16,000 ppm have been used on Casuarine glauca and Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Growth rates ranged from 1.7 m in 7 years on salinities of 16,000 ppm to 10–12 m in 8 years on salinities of 2000–2500 ppm. Trickle irrigation appears to allow the use of more saline water than can be used with other systems, perhaps because plant roots are not subject to the fluctuations in moisture stress that occur under all other systems.

Reorientation of Our Saline Water Resources Thinking

Desalination as a method for making sweet water from salt water is currently one of the most important factors that conceptually change the direction of our investigation of the nation's water resources. Desalting costs have decreased from about $5 per 1000 gallons 10 years ago to about $1 per 1000 gallons for seawater distillation today. For membrane desalting of brackish ground water, costs now range from 40 cents to $1 per 1000 gallons. Projected costs for desalting in the mid‐1970's are in the range of from 25 to 50 cents per 1000 gallons at the plant, which is in the same range as consumer costs for delivered water in large cities in 1969. Thus, saline ground water has developed considerable intrinsic worth. In addition, the pore space occupied by the saline water can be considered as a useful medium for storing natural gas, for artificial recharge and recovery of freshwater stored as ‘bubbles’, or for storing certain toxic industrial wastes. These beneficial uses are not necessarily competitive or incompatible, but great reliance must be placed on hydrologic prediction if haphazard interference of the various uses is to be avoided. Our thinking, planning, and investigative funding must be greatly expanded to provide necessary data on the physical, chemical, and hydrologic boundaries of saline water systems. On this total view of the environment depend enlightened engineering and legal decisions concerning best use of saline ground water and saline aquifers.