Use Of Protective Clothing Research Articles

Influence of Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, and Carbon Black Incorporated into Polyamide Yarn on Fabric Properties

Carbon nanomaterials are increasingly being integrated into modern research, particularly within the textile industry, to significantly boost performance and broaden application possibilities. This study investigates the impact of incorporating three distinct carbon-based nanofillers—carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon black (CB), and graphene (Gn)—into polyamide 6 (PA6) multifilament yarns. It explores how these nanofillers affect the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of PA6 yarns and fabrics. By utilizing melt extrusion, the nanomaterials were uniformly distributed in the yarns, and knitted fabrics were subsequently produced for detailed analysis. The research offers critical insights into how each nanofiller improves the thermal behavior of PA6-based textiles, enabling the customization of their applications. FTIR spectroscopy revealed significant chemical interactions between polyamide and carbon additives, while DSC analysis showed enhanced thermal stability, particularly with the inclusion of graphene. The introduction of these nanomaterials led to increased absorbance and decreased transmittance in the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum. Additionally, Far-Infrared (FIR) emissivity and thermal effusivity varied with different concentrations, with optimal improvements observed at specific levels. Although thermal conductivity decreased with the addition of these nanomaterials, heat management experiments demonstrated varied effects on heat accumulation and cooling times, underscoring potential applications in insulation and cooling technologies. These findings enrich the existing knowledge on nanomaterial-enhanced textiles, providing valuable guidance for optimizing PA6 yarns and fabrics for use in protective clothing, sportswear, and technical textiles. The comparative analysis offers a thorough understanding of the relationship between carbon nanomaterials and thermal properties, paving the way for innovative advancements in functional textile materials.

Occupational Health and Safety Risks Associated with Grass Trimmers in One of the Universities in Zimbabwe

Objectives: This research intends to investigate occupational health and safety risks associated with grass-trimming activities at a local university in Zimbabwe and recommend on ways to reduce the risks. Methods: A mixed-method approach was adopted and the research was based on a case study design. Data was collected using questionnaires, observations, and interviews, with a total of 27 participants involved in the study. Data was analysed using thematic analysis and ranking and scoring using a ranking matrix. Results: The findings revealed that the most prevalent risks were attributed to factors such as physical hazards which include noise, dust, solar radiation, and ergonomic issues. Among the identified causes of these risks were a lack of training, and improper use of personal protective equipment. Conclusion: The research concluded that grass-trimming operations introduce various health and safety risks that need to be effectively managed to ensure the well-being of workers and the general public. The researchers recommended the implementation of comprehensive training programs for employees, proper use of protective clothing and equipment to avoid noise and dust such as the use of earplugs, masks and regular maintenance of the grass trimming equipment and machines.

Twisting process of basalt fibers in water: The effects of water on microscopic structure and spinning property

Basalt fibers (BFs) are eco-friendly and natural high-performance fibers, specifically engineered for use in protective clothing, offering significant benefits. However, the inherent brittleness of this inorganic fabric not only poses challenges in processing but also renders it uncomfortable for wear. Consequently, there is an urgent need to modify BFs to enhance their torsional property and skin compatibility. Herein, we immersed BFs in water and twist them into yarn to investigate the effects of water erosion on BFs, specifically focusing on its impact on fiber structure and spinning performance. Under water's erosion, the BFs experienced ion-exchange reactions that compromised the silica framework, leading to a significant rise in both static and dynamic friction coefficients 162.5 % and 233.3 %, respectively, and a 1.53-fold improvement in torsional performance. The process of twisting in a water bath facilitated better fiber bundling, yielding a more compact yarn structure. This compaction reduced the occurrence of burrs following friction and enhanced both tensile and loop strength. At the fiber level, we utilized a simple water erosion method to enhance the twisting performance of basalt filament. This approach circumvents the disadvantages of large etching modification damage and poor sizing fastness, offering a novel method for the preparation of basalt twisted yarn.

Trends in Animal Bites and Rabies-related Deaths in Northern Iran: Implications for Public Health Interventions.

Rabies remains a public health problem in middle-income countries like Iran, despite being preventable. This study aimed to evaluate the six-year incidence of animal bites in the southern Caspian Sea region from 2016 to 2022, and focus on estimating the direct costs of animal bite cases using the incidence-based method. A multicenter, registry-based study was conducted using surveillance data of animal bites. Of the 40922 cases reported during the study period, 65.9% were male and 34.1% were female. Animal bites were most frequent among individuals over 50 years of age (23.5%), while children under 10 years of age had the lowest frequency of animal bites (2.3%). Animal bites were most common in June. Dogs were responsible for 33277 (81%) cases, cats for 5,624 (13.7%) cases, cows for 1054 (2.5%) cases, and other animals for the remaining cases. During the six-year study period, four deaths due to rabies were reported in the study area. The annual bite incidence rate was 386.3 per 100000 people in northern Iran. The males-to-female ratio was highest in 2019 (M/F ratio=2.4, 95% CI=1.2‒3.4). The elderly are at higher risk of animal bites, especially in rural areas. It is important to emphasize the use of protective clothing, washing wounds with soap water and rabies vaccination as initial treatment. Targeted vaccination efforts for eligible animals should be prioritized to minimize unnecessary financial burden. Educating farmers about rabies prevention programs, especially in cases of cow bites, is also important.

Farmers’ perception on herbicide usage and impact on health: an overview of status quo in parts of Benue South, Nigeria

Herbicide usage has increased significantly. Its irrational use has adverse side effects. These side effects threaten the environment and human health. This study aimed to evaluate farmers’ knowledge and perception on the health effects of herbicide usage in some parts of Benue South. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through questionnaires from farmers. A total of 252 farmers were interviewed from three selected local government areas in the state. Amongst farmers interviewed, 56% were males, 44% were females and all between 20-50 years. Some farmers had secondary education and few tertiary education, while the majority had primary or non-formal education. Most respondents reported non-use of personal protective equipment during applications. Commonly used herbicides were Paraforce, Sarosate, Force-off, Fitscosate, Actraforce, Dsitop, and Weed off. Paraforce and force off were the most commonly used. Some farmers (68.7%) reported that they read and adhered to application instructions on the herbicide pack, while (77.4%) as suggested by their co-farmers. Only 38.5% reported to have got their information from workshops. A fraction of the respondents reported different symptoms of ill-health after herbicide application. Farmers had a high level of ignorance of the impact of inappropriate herbicide usage and biosafety especially on the use of protective clothing. Inappropriate herbicide application has great side effects on health. We recommend farmers’ training programs on safe and appropriate herbicide usage measures and urge strict regulation and control of herbicide availability in the country.

Mitigation Due To Contamination Of Sarin Chemical Weapons To Reduce The Nubika Disaster

The misuse of chemical weapons can have highly dangerous consequences for both humans and the surrounding environment. One of the deadliest chemical weapons is sarin, which can lead to death within minutes of exposure. To reduce the consequences of a chemical weapons disaster, effective contamination mitigation is required. This research employs a qualitative descriptive method, with a literature review study, to discuss contamination mitigation strategies that can be used to minimize the consequences of a chemical weapons disaster caused by the use of sarin. Some of these strategies include the use of protective clothing, gas masks, and environmental decontamination. In emergency situations, protective clothing and gas masks can help shield individuals from exposure to chemical weapons. Furthermore, timely environmental decontamination can aid in reducing contamination levels and the risk of exposure. In addition to contamination mitigation strategies, preventive efforts are also crucial in lessening the impact of a chemical weapons disaster involving sarin. Prevention efforts involve chemical weapon surveillance, training and education, as well as the development of better detection and protection technologies. By implementing the appropriate contamination mitigation strategies and effective prevention efforts, it is hoped that the consequences of a chemical weapons disaster involving sarin can be significantly reduced.

Evaluation of Insulation against Contact Heat, Radiant Heat and Sensory Comfort of Basalt Fabric-Based Composites with Parylene C Coating

Abstract The article concerns research on using Parylene C coating on basalt fabric-based composites with potential use in protective clothing to improve their insulation against contact heat and radiant heat, as well as the sensory comfort of the user. The outcomes of the contact heat method showed that applying Parylene C coating improved the thermal insulation of all tested composites. Two of them achieved the first efficiency level of protection. The results of the radiant heat method presented that using the Parylene C coating did not cause changes in the thermal insulation against heat radiation of all tested materials; the radiant heat transfer index reached values in the range of 12.4 - 12.9 s. X-ray tomography (micro-CT) allowed for identifying breaks/snaps in basalt fibers irritating the user’s skin in direct contact with the composite. Micro-CT results also showed that using Parylene C coating eliminated the effect of skin irritation and increased the usability of basalt fabrics in clothing.

Prevalence and risk factors of childhood diarrhea among wastewater irrigating urban farming households in Addis Ababa.

Childhood diarrhea is one of the major contributors to the morbidity of under-five children in Ethiopia. Although researchers determine the risk factors varyingly, the exposure route to the pathogens is usually complicated. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of diarrhea among children under the age of five among wastewater irrigation farming households in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Cross-sectional study was conducted among 402 farming households from November 2021 to February 2022. Data was collected using a face-to-face interviewer-administered questionnaire. Stata version 14 software was used to analyze data. Factors associated with the prevalence of diarrhea was identified using binary logistic regression. Multivariable analysis was carried out to determine an adjusted odds ratio at a confidence level of 95% and level of significance at 0.05. The overall prevalence of under-five children diarrheal cases was 22.3%. The odds of diarrhea are associated with a multitude of variables. Major wastewater-related determinants associated with diarrhea are body washing with irrigation water [AOR: 37.7, 95%CI (3.1, 358)], contaminated cloth with irrigation water [AOR:10.8,95%CI(0.6, 205)], use of protective clothing during farm work [28.9,95%CI (3.9, 215)], use of farm work cloths at home [AOR: 31.7, 95%CI (4.4, 226)], and bringing unwashed farm tools to home [94 (5.7, 1575)]. The high prevalence of under-five children diarrheal disease among wastewater irrigation households was strongly associated with factors related to occupational exposure. Thus, to decrease childhood diarrheal among urban agriculture farmers, appropriate precautions need to be taken.

Assessment of knowledge and patterns of weedicide and personal protective equipment usage among farmers in some cocoa farming communities in Ghana

The inability of farmers to adhere to the precise usage pattern of weedicides and personal protective equipment (PPE) in cocoa cultivation has been a challenge to cocoa production, the environment and human health. We conducted a study to determine the usage pattern of weedicides and PPE in some cocoa-growing communities in the Western North region of Ghana. We collected data from 92 cocoa farmers distributed in five communities using a semi-structured questionnaire and descriptive statistics was employed in analysing the data in the form of frequency, percentages and p values. The results indicated a significant difference (P < 0.05) in all the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers where most of the smallholder farmers were of old age. The majority (84%) of the farmers used both manual and chemical methods of weed control in their farms. Farmers' choice of weed control method was significantly influenced by their level of education, use of protective clothing and their socio-economic characteristics. Farmers’ knowledge of weedicide usage, mode of application, rate of application and time of application was low. Wearing of protective clothing, wellington boots and overalls were common among farmers during weedicide application. Yet farmers complained of body irritation, severe headaches, catarrh, and body aches after weedicide usage. This is an indication of incomplete or improper use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by the farmers who were not aware of the dangers associated with the use of weedicides on their health. Based on these health problems and other related issues, Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) has discouraged cocoa farmers from the use of weedicides in the cocoa ecosystem. Instead, COCOBOD has provided slashers for use by farmers.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Pastoralists Towards Tick Bites, and Tick Control in Plateau State, Nigeria.

Pastoralists regularly come in contact with ticks as they herd their animals and are exposed to pathogens that cause zoonotic diseases. No study has been conducted in Nigeria to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of these Pastoralists towards ticks, tick bite, and tick control, and thus this research. A KAP survey of pastoralists (n = 119) was conducted in Plateau State, Nigeria. Data generated were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The majority of the pastoralists (99.2%) had knowledge of ticks, with 79% of them being aware that ticks attach and bite humans, whereas only 30.3% believed that ticks transmit diseases to humans. Eighty-four per cent of the pastoralists do not wear protective clothing while herding their animals and 81.5% indicated to having been bitten by ticks, whereas hospital visit after tick bite was low (7.6%). Statistically significant variables were observed when knowledge of the respondents were compared in relation to the ability of ticks to cause diseases (Χ2 = 9.980, P = 0.007); hospital visit after a bite (Χ2 = 11.453, P = 0.003); and the use of protective clothing for herding (Χ2 = 22.596, P = 0). The main tick control measure was hand picking (58.8%). The pastoralists were unaware of the ability of ticks to transmit zoonotic pathogens. Preventive practices were insufficient to reduce tick bites, and thus were constantly exposed to tick-borne diseases. This study hopes to provide important insights for the development of educational awareness programmes for the pastoralists and serve as a guide for the health workers in designing future preventive programmes against tick-borne zoonoses in Nigeria.

Malaria in Children: Updates on Management and Prevention.

Malaria in Children: Updates on Management and Prevention.

Use of Personal Protective Equipment for Health Complaints of Waste Transportation Officers in Mamuju Regency

Background: Personal hygiene is an important factor because if there is a problem with personal hygiene it will have an impact on one's health. The body will be susceptible to diseases such as skin diseases, infectious diseases, oral diseases and digestive tract diseases Purpose: this study aims to determine the relationship between the use of protective equipment by waste collectors on health complaints in Mamuju district Method: the research design used in this study was a cross-sectional study. The respondents in this study were garbage collectors in Mamuju Regency, totaling 124 respondents Results: The test results show that the test of the relationship between the use of masks and the incidence of flu/cough by respondents has a p value of 0.80 &gt; 0.05. while the relationship test of the use of protective clothing against complaints of itching has a p value of 0.52. Conclusion: There is no relationship between the use of masks while working on the incidence of flu/cough, as well as the use of protective clothing against the incidence of itching among garbage collectors in Mamuju district in 2022. Keywords: Personal protective equipment, health, complaints

Insecticide Treated Net Usage and Its Predictors among HIV Patients Attending an Antiretroviral Therapy Clinic in Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

Malaria prevention is important among HIV patients to mitigate its associated complications. This study explored the predictors of insecticide-treated net (ITN) usage among HIV patients attending an antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinic in Ebonyi state, Nigeria. It was a cross-sectional study that involved 297 patients who attended an ART clinic in Ebonyi State. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect relevant data which included perception of malaria prevention, ownership of ITN, condition of ITN, duration of use and ITN usage. The relationship between ITN usage and other variables was assessed using bivariate analysis and the predictors were determined using multivariate logistic regression. There were 64 (21.5%) males and 233(78.5%) females. Knowledge of the use of ITN (mean= 4.24 ±0.93) was rated better than knowledge of the use of mosquito repellent (mean = 3.79 ± 1.21) and knowledge of the use of protective clothes (mean= 3.86 ±1.26). 246 (83%) of the study population owned ITN. Only 48% (118) of those who had ITNs reported having optimal nets (nets without holes). 135 (45.5%) of the participants reported sleeping under the net every day in the past week. There was a significant relationship between ITN usage and knowledge of the use of ITN, ownership of ITN, duration of use and condition of nets. Predictors of usage of ITN were duration of use (AOR=0.386, 95%C.I for AOR=0.224-0.665) and condition of the nets (AOR=0.399, 95%C.I for AOR=0.226-0.706). Perception of malaria prevention was high among the study group. Ownership of ITN was high although many of the ITNs were not in good condition. Usage of ITN was largely determined by duration of use and good condition of nets. Yearly assessment of the condition of ITNs and replacement exercise of ITNs (2-3 years) at ART clinics to replace old and worn-out nets among HIV patients are recommended.

The Emergence of Carbon Nanomaterials as Effective Nano-Avenues to Fight against COVID-19.

COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019), a viral respiratory ailment that was first identified in Wuhan, China, in 2019, and then expanded globally, was caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The severity of the illness necessitated quick action to cease the virus's spread. The best practices to avert the infection include early detection, the use of protective clothing, the consumption of antiviral medicines, and finally the immunization of the patients through vaccination. The family of carbon nanomaterials, which includes graphene, fullerene, carbon nanotube (CNT), and carbon dot (CD), has a great deal of potential to effectively contribute to each of the main trails in the battle against the coronavirus. Consequently, the recent advances in the application of carbon nanomaterials for containing and combating the SARS-CoV-2 virus are discussed herein, along with their associated challenges and futuristic applicability.

Sun protective behaviors in sun-sensitive individuals: a cross-sectional study examining for ethnic and racial differences.

The rates of non-melanoma skin cancer continue to rise in the United States. We investigated if differences exist in skin cancer preventive behaviors among sun-sensitive non-Hispanic whites and other racial and ethnic groups. The National Health Information Survey was used to perform the cross-sectional study. Outcomes of interest included multiple sun-protective methods. Individuals were determined to be sun-sensitive if Fitzpatrick skin phototype (SPT) I/II. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the associations between the use of sun-protective practices and race and ethnicity, SPT, and survey year. The study included 67,471 individuals. Adjusted prevalences of skin cancer preventive behaviors revealed that across all SPTs, non-Hispanic whites were more likely to use sunscreen, undergo physician-administered FBSE, and have multiple sunburns or tan indoors in the past year compared to corresponding SPT other racial and ethnic groups. In contrast, other racial and ethnic groups with any SPT were more likely to practice sun avoidance than corresponding SPT non-Hispanic whites. Additionally, other racial and ethnic groups with SPT III+ were more likely to wear sun-protective clothing than non-Hispanic white individuals with similar SPTs. For all SPT and racial and ethnic groups, there were significant increases in sunscreen use and decreases in past-year indoor tanning. Full body skin examination prevalence, regardless of sun sensitivity, increased for all non-Hispanic whites, but remained unchanged for sun-sensitive other racial and ethnic groups. Adjusted prevalence of multiple sunburns and use of protective clothing remained unchanged for all racial and ethnic groups across all SPT categories. There are differences in sun-protective behaviors among sun-sensitive individuals by race and ethnicity with the magnitude of some of these differences increasing. Future research and public health campaigns are needed on photosensitive individuals and the relationship between skin protective behaviors and race/ethnicity. When discussing sun protection, care providers should not only consider the influence of sun-sensitivity, but also race and ethnicity, and its impact on sun prevention behaviors.

An Assessment on the Efficiency of Clothing with UV Protection among the Spanish Navy School Students.

Concern about the harmful effects that ultraviolet (UV) rays have on the skin of people who are routinely exposed to solar radiation has driven the industry of skin protection creams, sunglasses and clothing. Spanish Navy personnel are subject to different levels of exposure depending on their rank and function. The objective of this research is to analyze the behavioral variables associated to the effects on the skin caused by UV rays, denoted by the combined effects of perceived susceptibility and perceived severity, on their decision to purchase and wear uniforms with UV protection. A confirmatory analysis using a structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed on a sample of 100 respondents. The model results revealed a strong mediating characteristic of the intention to use, variable associated with the exogenous variables. Attitude towards the use of clothing and social influence, as well as the exogenous variable clothing action planning, on the sun protective clothing use during tactical maneuvers. These relationships were significant with p-values close to zero. However, exogenous variables related to perceived susceptibility and perceived severity in exposure to sunlight did not represent a significant influence when mediated by self-efficacy in use. The results revealed the consequence of awareness about the importance of protecting oneself and the influence that usage habits can have on the military with respect to the decision to purchase uniforms with UV protection.

Skin-friendly and highly fireproof fabric up to 1142 °C weaved by basalt @ polyimide yarns

Progress in fighting against fires depends on the development of novel fabrics with the balance between the wearing comfort and the fireproof capabilities, which is a particular challenge for protecting the safety of firefighters. However, current organic fabrics are easy to burn at high temperatures while inorganic fireproof fabrics are too brittle to wear comfortably. Therefore, the development of skin-friendly, highly fireproof fabrics is urgently required. In this paper, we report an inorganic/organic composite fabric weaved by basalt@polyimide yarns (denoted BS@PI yarns) that is skin-friendly and highly fireproof up to 1142 °C, which is much higher than that of commercial Aramid 1313. The BS@PI yarns are prepared through a non-destructive spinning method, allowing the brittle yet fireproof BS core surrounded by a soft PI sheath. Owing to the existence of the PI sheath, the as-prepared fabric shows good skin compatibility, high fire resistance, and well mechanical properties. Even being rubbed for 300 cycles, the BS@PI fabric is still skin-friendly without broken & sharp BS burrs towards the users. By using the inorganic-core@organic-sheath yarn strategy, our BS@PI fabric exhibit persistent skin-friendly and highly fireproof capability, which has great potential for use in protective clothing for emergency-service personnel.

A Study on Affordable Homestead Implements for Stress Reduction on Body Parts amongst Farm Workers of Khammam District, India

The rural populations consisting of marginal and poor farmers are dependent on labourers for all farm related activities like sowing / planting of paddy, harvesting of agricultural and horticultural produce and application of pesticides which can be very costly. These labourers also face a lot of problems in sowing / planting of paddy as it has to be done by bending down continuously or during application of pesticides to cotton fields drift can be major health concern and harvesting different produce like bhendi due to its thorny spikes and capsaicin content of chilies. In view of this, KVK, Wyra, Khammam has assessed cost effective homestead implements and is relentlessly trying to popularize them. These included use of protective clothing during application of pesticides, rolling stem applicator for controlling sucking pest in cotton, knitted gloves for bhendi plucking and chilli finger guard for its plucking. These simple and cost-effective farm implements helped farm women in drudgery reduction, ergonomic stress on various body parts, improved work efficiency, decreased labour cost and body allergies. Protective clothing reduced itching, irritation, skin allergies, burning, vomiting, headache and faintness over a month’s time, rolling stem applicator was ecofriendly and decreased the amount of chemicals, knitted gloves for bhendi plucking reduced the bruising and repeated damage to fingers during harvesting and chilli finger guard. The reduction in stress on body parts automatically improved the work efficiency among farm workers.

Farmers’ Knowledge of Insecticides Usage and Hazard in Some Selected Communities in Danko/Wasagu Local Government Area of Kebbi State, Nigeria

A study was carried out to assess the farmer’s knowledge of insecticides usage and hazard in some selected communities in Danko/Wasagu Local Government Area of Kebbi State. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The result revealed that the majority (69 percent) of the respondents were men, 53 percent of them were within the age range of 41 – 60 years, and 50 percent of them had a family size of 1-5 persons. Many of the respondents (36 percent) had one form of formal education or the other. Most of the respondents 62 percent got their farmland through inheritance. Results also revealed that the majority of the respondents (95 percent) are aware of insecticides, with 55 percent using them to spray their crops. Many respondents 96 percent used insecticides before; the majority of the respondents 75 percent used insecticides to control insect pests in their homes and farms. The findings revealed that the majority (91 percent) of the respondents were aware of insecticides hazard and 70 percent are aware of the health implication of these insecticides and result from the negative effect of insecticides revealed that a high proportion of 40 percent strongly agreed on the negative effect of insecticides. More so the majority 89 percent of respondents are aware of safety and precaution measures, and 82 percent agreed that the use of protective clothes during spraying is a safe and precaution measure. It is concluded that the majority of the farmers are aware of insecticides and their health hazards. It is recommended that farmers should be more sensitized about the danger of insecticides and when handling them proper care should be taken and should always use protective clothes during their application (spray) to protect themselves and avoid body contact.

Criticisms About Pesticide Use

Recently there has been more complaints about how pesticides are used throughout the World with concerns about their presence in soils, in harvested produce and the possibility that various illnesses were caused by exposure to pesticides. The initial criticisms date back to Rachel Carson (1962) who was concerned about the impact of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. This led to the establishing of the Rotterdam Convention about the movement of highly hazardous pesticides and established standards of information exchange, essentially to warn countries not to import these chemicals. A subsequent Stockholm convention considered the wider problem of persistent chemicals in the environment. Nevertheless, the agrochemical industry has continued to market a wide range of these pesticides. In the countries with a more temperate climate, the requirement of training those applying the pesticides, usually with tractor equipment and use of protective clothing, problems caused by using many pesticides have not been so evident compared with more tropical countries, using mostly manually carried and operated sprayers with little or no training on how or when pesticides should be applied.