Use Of OTC Drugs Research Articles

The Use of Over-The-Counter Drugs and Its Health Implications in Awka South LGA, Anambra State, Nigeria

This work examined the use of over-the-counter drugs and its health implications in Awka South LGA of Anambra State, Nigeria. The objective of the study is to empirically interrogate the prevalence of over-the-counter drug use in Awka South LGA of Anambra State, Nigeria; the factors influencing it, and its health implications. The study used a mixed methods research approach, with 204 respondents selected through a multistage sampling procedure. The structured questionnaire and In-Depth Interview (IDI) guide acted as data-gathering tools. The quantitative data were coded and processed with SPSS version 20. Frequency tables were utilized to evaluate, characterize, and show the data, whereas quantitative data were manually transcribed and analyzed using content analysis. Two study hypotheses were developed and tested using chi-square inference statistics. This study revealed that various factors influence the use of OTC drugs in Awka South LGA. The study equally found that the use of OTC drugs is very prevalent in Awka South LGA. Moreover, the study also found that abusing OTC drugs has health implications. Based on these findings, this study recommended that the government should regulate the production, sale, and advertisement of OTC drugs. The study also recommended that sensitization and awareness programs should be carried out periodically to teach people when and when not to use OTC drugs.

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND PRACTICES OF SELF-MEDICATION AMONG ADULT PATIENTS AGED 18 YEARS AND ABOVE RECEIVING HEALTH CARE SERVICES IN THE EYE CLINIC OF JINJA REGIONAL REFERRAL HOSPITAL. A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY.

Purpose of the study This was to determine the knowledge, attitude, and practices of self-medication among adult patients aged 18 years and above receiving health care services in the eye clinic of Jinja Regional Referral Hospital, carried out from November 2022 to April 2023. Study methods A cross-sectional descriptive study design employing both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection was used in the form of a questionnaire, 30 patients aged 18 years and above who agreed to be included in the study were used. Results Concerning knowledge about self-medication, it revealed that respondents could identify OTC drugs they always use, data analysis and interpretation revealed that respondents’ attitude towards the use of self-medication is still high (50%). Concerning practices of self-medication, between 1st December 2022-1st March 2023, the majority (43.5%) had practiced between January and February 2023, 30% had practiced within the last two weeks according to the time frame of the study, and only 26.1% had last used in December 2022, which showed that self-medication practice is still high within the region. Conclusion Given these findings, there is still a high need to sensitize the population about the knowledge of OTC drugs, the dangers associated with frequent and prolonged use of these drugs, and how to use them safely. Recommendations The government through the Ministry of Health should sensitize the population about the risk factors of wrong use of OTC drugs and the dangers of traditional medicines. It should also extend its health facilities to all areas of the country, and as well make them active by providing drugs and qualified personnel and as well improve the services of the already existing facilities so that people can get help.

ANALYSIS OF OPINIONS OF RESPONDENTS ON THE USE OF OVER-THE-COUNTER MEDICINE PREPARATIONS

Purpose: The aim of the study is to analyze the respondents' opinions on the use of OTC drugs. Methodology. The source study material was 100 respondents in various age groups. The study involved 66 women and 34 men. Most of them were people with secondary (40 %) or vocational (30 %) education. People with higher education accounted for 11 %, incomplete higher education – 12 %, and respondents with lower secondary education – 5 %; 2 % of respondents had primary education. The study was conducted at the Institute of Biology and Earth Sciences of the Pomeranian University in Słupsk among current randomly selected students and in two different workplaces, such as the Gino Rossi production plant and Tytan (Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland). The largest group among the respondents consisted of people aged 15-24 (32 %), while 20 % of respondents were in the age group of 35-44 and 45-54. The age group of respondents aged between 55 and 64 accounted for 16 % of the respondents, while people aged 25-34 – only 9 %. The smallest number of people participating in the study was in the age group over 65 (3 %). Scientific novelty. The analysis of the results of our research showed that a similar number of respondents (33 %, 30 %) use OTC drugs or pharmaceuticals sporadically or several times. As many as 16 % of the survey participants take them repeatedly, while 21 % of the respondents have never used OTC drugs and pharmaceuticals. On the other hand, 46 % of respondents admitted that they never consult a doctor or pharmacist on the use of OTC medicines or pharmaceuticals, 24 % of respondents declare that they always pay attention to seeking advice before taking new drugs and pharmaceuticals, and 30 % of respondents sometimes consults about taking drugs and pharmaceuticals for the first time. Our research has shown that 33 % of respondents believe that the use of OTC drugs and pharmaceutical preparations may be rather harmful to health, while 28 % of respondents cannot define their opinion. Only 4 % of the respondents consider the use of OTC drugs to be safe. Also, 62 % of the respondents answered that they had never used drugs and pharmaceutical preparations contrary to the recommendations. Quite rarely, such a situation occurred in 25 % of respondents, while quite often and very often, such situations occurred in 8 % and 5 % of respondents. Only 6 % of respondents declared that they very often used OTC drugs and pharmaceuticals, despite the fact that they had contraindications to do so. In 81 % of the respondents, such situations occurred rather rarely, and 13 % of opinion givers quite often encountered a situation in which they used OTC drugs and pharmaceuticals, despite the fact that they had contraindications to do so. Conclusions. This study demonstrated that most of our respondents know that OTC drugs can have adverse health effects. It should be emphasized, however, that a smaller group of respondents consult a doctor or pharmacist at the first contact with a given drug. Only a few taking over-the-counter drugs for the first time do not seek information about their properties and effects. Only a small proportion of respondents admit to misuse of OTC drugs.

Why should we restrain the availability of paracetamol - an analysis of acetaminophen intoxication in adolescents

Introduction and aim: Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a commonly used analgesics and antipyretics and it is a nonprescription medicine. Improper use of it may lead to accidental or intentional poisoning. The aim of the study was to analyse paracetamol poisonings in children and adolescents admitted to the Clinical Department of Toxicology and Cardiology in Stefan Wyszyński Regional Specialist Hospital in Lublin in 2022. Material and methods: The research was retrospective. Medical records of poisoning cases in patients up to the age of 18 were analysed specifically emphasizing acetaminophen poisonings.Results: In the studied period 120 adolescents were hospitalized due to intoxication, 65 of them due to medications intake, the most commonly used medicine was acetaminophen. There were 20 cases of hospitalization because of acetaminophen intake, 17 (85%) patients were female and 3 (15%) of them were male. Patients were from 15 to 17 years old. In 12 cases (60%) patients came from urban areas. The intentional intoxications were found in 18 (90%) cases, 13 of them were suicide attempt. Majority of cases of attempted suicide were female (92%). The other intoxications were accidental, where patients took acetaminophen as a painkiller. In the researched group there were no deaths.Conclusions: Paracetamol overdosing is always associated with the risk of liver damage.This medicament as a potentially hepatotoxic drug should not be sold over the counter. The availability of paracetamol is too widespread, which poses a risk especially to children and adolescents. The ubiquitous advertising of acetaminophen products as well as their popular use, for example, in menstrual pain, favor their presence in almost every Polish home. Parents and guardians should be educated about the dangers of uncontrolled use of so-called OTC drugs - incorrectly commonly considered safe.

Unprescribed and unnoticed: Retrospective chart review of adverse events of interactions between antidepressants and over-the-counter drugs.

Aim: To systematically evaluate prevalence and clinical characteristics of adverse effects of antidepressants and OTC drugs interactions in a retrospective chart review. Methodology: Dataset of 1,145 registered adverse events were evaluated. Reports were selected for further analysis if pharmacoepidemiological avaluation indicated the presence of high probability of a causal relationship between antidepressants and OTC interaction and the occurrence of side effect. Following variables were extracted from the records: sex, age, medical comorbidities, antidepressant and other concomitant medications, clinical consequences ant the possible interaction mechanisms. Results: 368 showed causal relationship with the simultaneous use of antidepressant with another drug. 15 adverse events (4%) were related to the use of OTC medicine, particularly omeprazole, diphenhydramine, Japanese ginkgo biloba, ibuprofen, diclofenac and sildenafil. All of the analysed side effects were categorized as the result of pharmacokinetic interactions. Here we report identified OTC drugs with corresponding antidepressants and clinical manifestations of DDI. Omeprazole: agomelatine (nausea, abnormal dreams), fluoxetine (extrapyramidal symptoms, paresthesias), sertraline (vertigo, yawning), escitalopram (oral vesiculation). Diphenhydramine: sertraline (diaphoresis, insomnia, vertigo), paroxetine (pruritus, headache), duloxetine (oropharyngeal pain). Japanese ginkgo biloba: citalopram (bradycardia), trazodone (vertigo, taste pervesion), mianserine (restless legs syndrome). Diclofenac: escitalopram (oral vesiculation), and fluoxetine (restless legs syndrome). Ibuprofen: agomelatine (anxiety and nausea), sertraline and omeprazole (QTc prolongation). Sildenafil: fluoxetine (genital oedema) and sertraline (myocardial infarction). Conclusion: The use of OTC drugs by the patients should be monitored. Pharmacokinetic interactions between nonprescribed medicines and antidepressants may increase concentration and severity of side effects of latter ones.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice towards Over-the-Counter Drugs (OTC) use among adult population in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Background: Despite all their benefits, improper use of medicines can bring potential health hazards. Though it was previously considered unnecessary, responsible self-medication is regarded as an essential aspect of self-care. Objectives: To explore the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice on Over-the-Counter Drugs (OTC) use, and its determinants among the adult population in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Method: It was a cross sectional study, where data were collected through online Google form to collect information on 503 subjects; where the sample type was a convenient one. A predesigned questionnaire was used to collect information on personal, sociodemographic and clinical information, as well as on the knowledge, attitude and practice on use of OTC drugs. Statistical analysis: SPSS version 24 was used, and the Subroutine Chi square test of significance was used. The level of significance was 0.05. Results: The majority of the enrolled subjects (83.3%) used OTC drugs (419/503). About 60% were under the age of 40 years old. Lower educational level, and increased salary over 10,000 SR were significantly associated with the use of OTC drugs (p < 0.05). About 80% were advised on the use of the OTC drugs by pharmacists; and 53.7% read about indications, side effects and contraindications of the OTC drugs before their use. About 80% used them for emergency; and 71% used them for treatment of mild illnesses. About 90% used them because of their past experience with their use, and 30% used them to avoid consultation fees. Painkillers were used by 97.4% of the subjects; in addition, cough suppressants (71.8%), dietary supplements (69.2%), antihistamine (40.3%) and digestive and laxative drugs (48.9%) were used. About 30%, considered that OTC drugs were cheaper and convenient. About 45% of the subjects considered that OTC drugs were safe and effective. About 80% considered it was wrong. to use the OTC drugs with other medications Conclusion: In Saudi Arabia, OTC medications can easily be obtained at pharmacies for the purpose of self-treatment. Approximately 83% of Jeddah survey respondents reported that they had used OTC drugs. The most commonly used OTC medications were antipyretics, analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs, and these drugs were more commonly used by respondents aged <40 years than those aged 40 years. The awareness level of the survey respondents on the side effects resulting from the use of OTC medications was relatively low. Keywords: OTC drugs, KAP, Saudi Arabia, mild illnesses

A cross-sectional study on knowledge and practice of over-the-counter drugs among 2nd year medical students in a tertiary care teaching hospital

Background: Over the counter drugs (OTC) are the drugs that can be sold by the pharmacist without the prescription of registered medical practitioner. There is an increase in the trend of usage of OTC drugs because of busy lifestyle which can result in adverse drug reactions, drug interaction, abuse, and misuse of drugs. Since medical students are future doctors and play an important role in educating the patients regarding benefits and risks of using OTC drugs, the present study is undertaken to assess the knowledge and practice of OTC drugs among MBBS students. Aim and Objectives: The main objectives of this study was to determine the commonly used OTC drugs and indications for the use of OTC drugs among MBBS students and to assess their knowledge on safety of use of OTC drugs. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional, observational, and questionnaire-based study was conducted during December 2021 among 2nd year MBBS students, after getting approval from the Institutional Ethics Committee. Students were explained about the purpose of the study and questionnaire was administered to the students. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results: In our study, we observed that 75.3% of students practiced self-medication (SM) using OTC drugs for minor illnesses. The most common drugs used for SM were analgesics, antipyretics and antihistamines. The most common reason for using OTC drugs is due to influence from family and friends/seniors (30.2%). Conclusion: Use of OTC is widely practiced among health care professionals, since they are exposed to knowledge of drugs, from 2nd year MBBS itself. Since students are future doctors and play a very important role in communication of knowledge regarding medical therapy including use of OTC drugs to the patients, they should be educated in a larger way regarding pros and consequences of use of OTC drugs.

The Views of the Public on Making Decisions about over the Counter Medications and Their Attitudes towards Evidence of Effectiveness

Aim: This study aimed to determine the public views on making decisions about over the counter drugs and their attitudes towards evidence of their effectiveness.
 Methodology: The present study includes gathering data from the public using a survey that was adapted from a previous study. This survey was translated from English to Arabic language and was converted to an online form using Google Forms and then the link was sent to be completed by the public.
 Results: The survey was completed by 102 respondents. Most of the respondents agreed that the most important factors that influence their purchases of medications were the safety of the product (73.53%) and the efficacy of the drug (71.57). Most of the respondents agreed that the main methods of determining the effectiveness of the medication included the previous using of the drug (76.5%) and the physician recommendation to use it by a (75.5%). Only about 49.02% of them agreed that the majority of non-prescription medicines are supported by scientific evidence from drug trials to prove they are effective.
 Conclusion: This study highlighted positive views and attitudes toward the use of OTC drugs. It is important to increase the awareness of the public about how to use these drugs wisely. Community pharmacists should play a crucial role in optimizing medication use and in patients counseling.

Over the counter drug use: Assessing the perception of the community

The drugs that can be easily purchased from any medical store without prescription are known as “Non Prescription” drugs. Such non prescription drugs are used for self medication. Non Prescription drugs are commonly termed as “Over the counter” drugs. There is always certain degree of danger in consuming OTC drugs even though some people consider their use as completely safe. The study is designed with an objective to understand the pattern of Over the Counter drugs use in a locality of Dehradun by using a structured questionnaire. An Observational, Descriptive study was conducted. The data was collected using a Questionnaire. The present study was carried out in 350 participants. After analyzing the results it was found that 100% participants follow self medication and consume OTC drugs. The number of females (52%) were more as compared to males(48%). Paracetamol (62%) was the most commonly consumed OTC drug. Fever (37%) was the most common condition for which people use OTC drugs. The most general reason of practicing selfmedication that was reported in our study was easy convenience (23%). The study also concludes that the most common source of relevant information about OTC drugs were friends/relatives. (28%). The use of OTC drugs is fast increasing as they are easily available. However, poor awareness about their consumption end up in many side effects. This study will help gain knowledge about peoples perceptive which would ultimately help forming new guidelines for safer use of OTC drugs.

Recent Social Background and Consumer Views on Over-the-counter Drugs and Self-medication

Recently, because the marked rise in medical expenses in Japan has become a major social problem, self-medication using OTC drugs in cases of minor health problems has attracted increasing attention. When people use OTC drugs for self-medication, they need support and/or advice from pharmacists on their proper use. This paper outlines recent revisions in the legal sales system of OTC drugs, the social background of self-medication, characteristics of OTC drugs and role of the pharmacists in providing consultation on OTC preparations. Next, consumers' views of self-medication and the OTC drug sales system are described based on the results of surveys performed after they attended an educational event on the proper use of OTC drugs. The survey of consumer views on the legal sales system of OTC drugs revealed that they were the most concerned about safety and convenience. From the survey of consumer views on self-medication, a significant percentage of the group who understood the meaning of the term "self-medication" practiced it in cases of minor health problems. Although no significant difference was seen between the groups who understood the term "self-medication" and those who did not in regard to the reading the drug package label and/or insert, a significant difference was found in their understanding of "The System for Sufferers from Adverse Drug Reactions". Therefore, it was clear that the consumers familiar with "self-medication" not only practiced it, but also understood the contents of drug package labels and/or inserts.

Assessment of knowledge, attitudes and practice among interns about over the counter drugs in a tertiary care hospital in India

Background: Drugs that are dispensed against a valid prescription issued to a patient by a registered medical practitioner are known as “prescription-only drugs”. In India, they have been regulated under schedule H, H1, G, and X of the Drugs and Rules (1945). The drugs which are not included in the list of “prescription-only drugs” are considered to be over-the-counter drugs (OTC). There is no provision for an OTC drug schedule in the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules 1945, and these drugs have higher chances of misuse or abuse. This study was undertaken to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practice among medical interns about OTC drugs in a tertiary care hospital in India.Methods: This was a cross-sectional study, which was conducted at Kempegowda Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Bangalore, Karnataka, India, from March 2018 to September 2018. A pre-validated questionnaire consisting of 24 questions to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice was administered to 80 medical interns chosen by simple randomization, out of which 14 questions were related to knowledge, 6 related to attitude and 4 related to the practice. The participants were provided 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. The data recorded were analyzed using Microsoft Excel.Results: There were some gaps in the knowledge, attitude and practice among the medical interns about OTC medications.Conclusions: There is a need for special emphasis on the MBBS curriculum about the use of OTC drugs.

Restrictions on access to Over The Counter drugs – an obstacle or a chance for better treatment?

The use of OTC drugs is very popular in Poland. However, not many people realise what dangers stem from the inappropriate use of those medications. One of the most prominent abuse of OTC drugs is improper dosage, which may cause negative side effects leading to the deterioration of the patient’s health. A potential solution to this problem is the imposition of restrictions on the availability of OTC drugs, which could raise the awareness of the buyers. The people surveyed have been grouped on the basis of gender, age, education and place of living. The results of the survey show which OTC drugs are most frequently bought, where those drugs are bought and what the most frequent reasons for taking painkillers are. Moreover, more detailed data (taking into account the gender, the age, the education and the place of living of the respondents) has been gathered in regard to reading the package leaflets of the drugs, combining drugs and understanding the hazards of doing so. The interviewees have also expressed their opinions on the use of the new substitutes for OTC drugs and the prospective selling restriction of OTC drugs proposed by the Ministry of Health. Thanks to the information obtained, a general idea of the level of Poles’ knowledge about over-the-counter drugs can be formed. The study has shown that: Ibuprom, APAP and Paracetamol are the most popular OTC drugs. Stemming from this tendency is the frequent overdose of one of the active substances paracetamol. As far as the selling restriction plan of the Ministry of Health is concerned, the negative attitude towards it results from the fear of not being able to get the medications quickly, all the while restraining the spread of the substitutes. Finally, the issue of recurring side effects remains the matter of not reading the package leaflets of the drugs before use.

Evaluation of Dissolution Profiles of Famotidine from OTC Drugs

In recent years, self-medication has started to receive more attention in Japan owing to increasing medical costs and health awareness among people. One of the main roles of pharmacists in self-medication is to provide appropriate information regarding OTC drugs. However, pharmacists promoting the proper use of OTC drugs have little information on their formulation properties. In this study, we performed dissolution tests on both OTC drugs and ethical drug (ED) containing famotidine, and evaluated the differences in their dissolution profiles. Marked differences in dissolution profiles of OTC drugs were observed in test solutions at pH 1.2, 4.0, and 6.8 and in water. To evaluate the differences quantitatively, we calculated the lag time and dissolution rate constant from the dissolution profiles. Significant differences in lag times and dissolution rate constants between some OTC drugs and ED were observed. We also used similarity factor (f2), to quantify the similarity between dissolution profiles of OTC drugs and ED. f2 values less than 42 were observed in some OTC drugs, suggesting that these differences might influence absorption in vivo resulting in differences in their onset time and efficacy. The findings of this study will provide useful information for the promotion of proper use of OTC drugs.

Survey of Description on Package Inserts of OTC Drugs

The "self-medication tax deduction" system began in Japan in January 2017, allowing people to encourage the use of OTC drugs. Package inserts contain important information for consumers regarding their use. In this study, we first checked whether the items, as required in the notifications of the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, are described in the package inserts of cold remedies and analgesic antipyretics in OTC drugs. The descriptions of almost all packages checked in this study were based on the notifications, but those of a small number of them were not. Next, we examined the description of the items, unrequired in the notification, but worthy for proper use of drugs; e.g., the description of prohibition for use by "patients with severe hypertension" in case of ibuprofen-containing products, and the description was found in only seven of 180 products. Manufactures should make package inserts along with notifications, including the description for proper use of drugs.

Częstość stosowania leków OTC u pacjentów z rozpoznanym alergicznym nieżytem nosa w świetle projektu ECAP (Epidemiologia Chorób Alergicznych w Polsce)

ENWEndNote BIBJabRef, Mendeley RISPapers, Reference Manager, RefWorks, Zotero AMA Krzych-Fałta E, Furmańczyk K, Wojas O, et al. The frequency of use of OTC drugs by subjects with diagnosed allergic rhinitis in the light of the ECAP (Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases in Poland) project. Alergologia Polska - Polish Journal of Allergology. 2018;5(3):168-174. doi:10.5114/pja.2018.78598. APA Krzych-Fałta, E., Furmańczyk, K., Wojas, O., Raciborski, F., Tomaszewska, A., & Piekarska, B. et al. (2018). The frequency of use of OTC drugs by subjects with diagnosed allergic rhinitis in the light of the ECAP (Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases in Poland) project. Alergologia Polska - Polish Journal of Allergology, 5(3), 168-174. https://doi.org/10.5114/pja.2018.78598 Chicago Krzych-Fałta, Edyta, Konrad Furmańczyk, Oksana Wojas, Filip Raciborski, Aneta Tomaszewska, Barbara Piekarska, and Agnieszka Lipiec et al. 2018. "The frequency of use of OTC drugs by subjects with diagnosed allergic rhinitis in the light of the ECAP (Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases in Poland) project". Alergologia Polska - Polish Journal of Allergology 5 (3): 168-174. doi:10.5114/pja.2018.78598. Harvard Krzych-Fałta, E., Furmańczyk, K., Wojas, O., Raciborski, F., Tomaszewska, A., Piekarska, B., Lipiec, A., Sybilski, A., and Samoliński, B. (2018). The frequency of use of OTC drugs by subjects with diagnosed allergic rhinitis in the light of the ECAP (Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases in Poland) project. Alergologia Polska - Polish Journal of Allergology, 5(3), pp.168-174. https://doi.org/10.5114/pja.2018.78598 MLA Krzych-Fałta, Edyta et al. "The frequency of use of OTC drugs by subjects with diagnosed allergic rhinitis in the light of the ECAP (Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases in Poland) project." Alergologia Polska - Polish Journal of Allergology, vol. 5, no. 3, 2018, pp. 168-174. doi:10.5114/pja.2018.78598. Vancouver Krzych-Fałta E, Furmańczyk K, Wojas O, Raciborski F, Tomaszewska A, Piekarska B et al. The frequency of use of OTC drugs by subjects with diagnosed allergic rhinitis in the light of the ECAP (Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases in Poland) project. Alergologia Polska - Polish Journal of Allergology. 2018;5(3):168-174. doi:10.5114/pja.2018.78598.

A Study of Self Medication Practices among the People in Ernakulam District, Kerala, India

Objective: The purpose of the study was to assess the self-medication practices among the Ernakulam people in Kerala, India. Methods: A prospective observational study was conducted at 3 community pharmacies at Ernakulam in Kerala. The study included 327 people visiting the pharmacy for purchasing drugs without prescriptions over a period of 3 months beginning from October to December 2016. Results: Out of 327 members, we found that percentage of male purchasing OTC drugs was 70.95% and the percentage of female was 29.05%. Our data shows that people in the age group of 20-30 years (43.42%) were taking more OTC drug than 30-40 years (26.60%), 40-50 years (19.88%) and remaining 10.1% in 50-60 years of age. Unemployed people 174(53.30%) were using more OTC drugs than self-employee 98(29.96%) and government employee 55(16.84%). Quick relief 185(56.57%) was the main reason for self-medication than high consultant fee 98(29.97%) and lack of time 44(13.46%). The sources of self-medication was found to be doctor’s previous prescriptions 185(56.57%), pharmacist 119(36.39%), TV/ Radio 11(3.34%) and books 12(3.70%). The most commonly used category of self-medicationwas analgesics/antipyretics 174(53.22%) of which fever 131(40.08%) was the main indication for the use of OTC drugs followed by antitussive 130(39.75%) and laxative 23(7.03%). Conclusion: From our study, we concluded that self-medication was very common among 20-30 years age group of male people inErnakulam. Quick relief is the main reason for self-medication. The survey high lights the urgent need of public education about specific risk or side effects of self-medication.

Analysis of the phenomenon of over-the-counter drug abuse and not controlled herbs trade by polish adolescents: Part I

The phenomenon of stupefying by the use of available over-the-counter drugs (OTC) among adolescents is an essential problem in both Poland and throughout the world. Popular analgesics, cold medicine and antihistamines contain psychedelic substances, such as dextromethorphan (DXM), pseudoephedrine/ephedrine, codeine (methylmorphine), dimenhydrinate, paracetamol (acetaminophren) and others. Cases of fatal addiction to dextromethorphan, one of the active substances contained in medicines, e.g., the common cold, have been reported. The test results cited by the authors clearly indicate that the use of OTC drugs, whose turnover is not controlled is a domain of females. The extent of use of drugs not prescribed by a doctor has remained for many years at a constant level. The most common poisonings with OTC drugs are caused by those that affect the respiratory system or exert analgesic or antipyretic effects. They are also used in attempted suicides, especially among females. Analyzing poisonings caused by OTC medications their seasonality has been observed. Their number increases during spring-autumn. A territorial differentiation in areas of OTC drug trade in terms of their quantities, with the predominance of southern regions is also noted. Intoxication with psychoactive substances causes the deterioration of relations between young people. In the reviewed studies there is no detailed information on the composition of non-prescription medicines. Moreover, young people have easy access to mushroom fungi, growing in nearby forests and meadows that may have hallucinogenic effects and are available in pharmacies and on the Internet. Med Pr 2017;68(3):413-422.

Self-medication practice in Ethiopia: a systematic review.

BackgroundSelf-medication patterns vary among different populations, and are influenced by many factors. No review has been done that comprehensively expresses self-medication practice in Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the literature on self-medication practice in Ethiopia.Materials and methodsDatabases (PubMed, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Hinari) were searched for published studies on the practice of self-medication in Ethiopia without restriction in the year of publication or methodology. Some studies were also identified through manual Google search. Primary search terms were “self medication”, “Ethiopia”, “self care”, “non-prescription”, “OTC drug use”, “drug utilization”, and “drug hoarding”. Studies that measured knowledge only or attitude only or beliefs only and did not determine the practice of self-medication were excluded.ResultsThe database search produced a total of 450 papers. After adjustment for duplicates and inclusion and exclusion criteria, 21 articles were found suitable for the review. All studies were cross-sectional in nature. The prevalence of self-medication varied from 12.8% to 77.1%, with an average of 36.8%. Fever/headache, gastrointestinal tract diseases, and respiratory diseases were the commonest illnesses/symptoms for which self-medication was taken. The major reasons for practicing self-medication were previous experience of treating a similar illness and feeling that the illness was mild. Analgesics/antipyretics, antimicrobials, gastrointestinal drugs, and respiratory drugs were the common drug classes used in self-medication. Mainly, these drugs were obtained from drug-retail outlets. The use of self-medication was commonly suggested by pharmacy professionals and friends/relatives.ConclusionSelf-medication practice is prevalent in Ethiopia and varies in different populations and regions of the country. Some of the self-medication practices are harmful and need prompt action. Special attention should be given to educating the public and health care providers on the types of illnesses that can be self-diagnosed and self-treated and the types of drugs to be used for self-medication.

An Exploration in Women’s Perception of the Use of Over-the-Counter Drugs: A Content Analysis

Background: Arbitrary drug use is considered as one of the major problems in all countries. Several studies indicate that self-medication is more prevalent in women. In addition to the side-effects of drugs on women’s health, their health behavior can affect their families, as well. Qualitative research provides insight into participants’ internal world as well as the chance to specify and interpret the data and their experience at a deeper level. Objectives: The present qualitative study aimed to explore women’s perception of OTC drugs. Methods: The present study is a conventional qualitative content analysis conducted on women’s community in the Guilan province, the North of Iran. The study population was selected through purposive sampling, and the data were gathered through semi-structured interviews, which continued up to data saturation point. Data analysis was performed as per the stages recommended by Graneheim and Lundman. Research strength and its scientific accuracy were evaluated as per the criteria proposed by Guba and Lincoln. Results: Data analysis identified three main themes and 9 subthemes as follows: “fragmented interaction in health system (poor relationship between patients and therapists, government’s poor economic support, inadequate supervision); “false self-confidence” (belief in the non-riskiness/efficiency of self-medication, self-esteem in understanding one’s health status, good memories of healing); “perceived personal stonewalling” (limitations in time, huge costs of treatment, and poor understanding of nuisances). Conclusions: Participants’ experience highlighted the necessity of awareness about adverse side effects of OTC drug use; such awareness can be achieved through various methods such as information dissemination and proper culture of drug use promoted by healthcare professionals to resolve the mentioned issues and improve, consolidate, and promote society’s level of knowledge and health.

Inhibitory Effect of Oxethazaine on Midazolam Metabolism in Rats.

There have been few reports concerning to the drug-drug interactions (DDIs) with OTC drugs although an increase in the use of OTC drugs in recent years. This current study was conducted to clarify the DDIs through CYP3A inhibition by oxethazaine (OXZ), an antacid available as an OTC drug. Midazolam (MDZ) was used as a probe drug for CYP3A activity. In an in vivo study, a single oral dose of OXZ (50 mg/kg) was administered to rats 30, 60, or 120 min before oral MDZ administration (15 mg/kg). Serum concentrations of MDZ were analyzed by HPLC, and its pharmacokinetic parameters were compared with a water-treated control group. The inhibitory effect of OXZ on MDZ 1'-hydroxylation (MDZ 1'-OH) activity was investigated in vitro using rat liver and intestinal microsomes. Pretreatment of OXZ 120 min before MDZ administration significantly increased the area under the serum concentration-time curve (AUC0-∞) of MDZ six-fold compared to the control group without a change in elimination half-life (t1/2). In contrast, OXZ pretreatment 30 or 60 min before MDZ administration did not show any remarkable change in MDZ pharmacokinetic parameters. The in vitro study showed that OXZ inhibited MDZ 1'-OH activity in a concentration-dependent manner both in liver and intestinal microsomes. These results suggested that OXZ increases serum MDZ concentration presumably by the inhibition of liver and/or intestinal CYP3A activity. OXZ was predicted to cause the DDIs mediated by CYP3A inhibition, although this effect depended on the dose interval.