Use Of Non-prescription Medicines Research Articles

Assessment of Nonprescription Medicine and First Aid Knowledge Among School Health Teachers in Northern Thailand

This research aimed to assess nonprescription medicine knowledge, first aid knowledge, and compared the knowledge scores with and without previous training among school health teachers in Phayao Province, Northern Thailand. This cross-sectional study included school health teachers from primary and secondary schools by using the quota and purposive sampling methods. The data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire with three sections: socio-demographic characteristics, nonprescription medicine assessment, and first aid assessment. The data were gathered and analyzed using descriptive and independent sample t-test analysis. A total of 152 school health teachers participated in this study, with a response rate of 94.4%. The mean age was 41.5 ± 10.6 years, and 92.8% of the teachers were females. The majority (97.4%) of the teachers did not have a degree related to health sciences. 73.0% of the teachers had no previous nonprescription medicine training, while 59.2% had no previous first aid training. Only 15.8% of teachers were knowledgeable in nonprescription medicine, and only a few (0.7%) were knowledgeable in first aid. In addition, higher knowledge scores of nonprescription medicines (P-value < 0.001, 95% CI = 1.71 – 3.69) and first aid (P-value < 0.001, 95% CI = 2.83 – 4.19) were statistically significant among the teachers who had received previous training. This highlights the importance of training teachers about the use of nonprescription medicines and first aid management so they can respond appropriately to first aid needs in schools and could be incorporated into a support policy and integrated into the teachers’ training curriculum.

Factors Associated With Ophthalmic Self Medication Among Adult Patients Attending Sabatia Eye Hospital in Vihiga County, Kenya

Background: Self-medication is the selection and use of non-prescription medicines by individuals’ own initiatives to treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms. Ophthalmic eye drugs are widely used by many people who trickle into drug stores for the most common and readily available eye drugs ignoring the potential danger they expose themselves to. Objectives: The study sought to determine socioeconomic factors associated with ophthalmic self-medication among adult patients attending Sabatia eye hospital in Vihiga County, Kenya. Methodology: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was used. The research was carried out at Sabatia eye hospital, Vihiga County, Kenya. The study population for this research was drawn from 322 patients seeking eye services at the study site. Systematic sampling method was used to select the study subject. The study used structured questionnaires to collect data though interviews and analysis was done using SPSS version 25 and results presented in proportions using tables and graphs. Results: A total of 322 respondents were included into the study which is 101.9% of the 316 participants targeted. Majority of males (49.6%) said they self-medicated because of due to long hospital queues. Respondents aged 40-69 years are more likely to use traditional herbs to treat eye illnesses. Those with college or degree level of education (11.5%) are more likely to self-medicate with antibiotics. Most of the respondents 51.6% presenting with redness of eyes are likely to use antibiotics, while those with trauma 41.8% reported use of drug left overs and were less likely to seek hospital treatment. Those aged 60-69 years reported use of milk as a mode of treatment while the ones aged 18-29 years (8.6%) reported distance as a factor leading to self-medication Recommendations: Health Providers should have quality time with patient coupled with proper counseling on use of drugs as this is regarded as one of the essential components of the overall medicine use process. Rules and regulations on dispensing of medicines from pharmacies should be reinforced and train and employ more eye health workers

Obtaining Consumer Information for the Purchase of Over-The-Counter Medicines and Food Supplements from Hungarian-Speaking Adult Consumers in Slovakia

The present study focuses on the role of online (Internet) ordering, information seeking, and the importance of the information provided by health professionals connected with the purchase of over-the-counter medicines and food supplements. Our primary survey was conducted in April-May 2022 and received 216 answers from Hungarian-speaking consumers in Slovakia that could be analysed. The data collected through the questionnaire was examined using statistical analysis and calculations. The data were organised in a single Excel file to facilitate our analysis and were processed using IBM SPSS Statistics 23 software for statistical tests – descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation analysis, Khi-square tests (variables were in nominal and ordinal measurement level). Results were considered significant at a p-value<0.05 and a p-value<0.001. Results and discussion: As to obtaining information, its receiving in person at the pharmacy is essential for consumers. When buying OTC medicines and dietary supplements, personal contact with a person working in a pharmacy is important. Consumers who want to receive information about the use of OTC medicines/supplements regard it essential to receive this information in person at the pharmacy. However, consumers who desire to purchase over-the-counter medicine/dietary supplements outside the pharmacy do not consider it important to obtain this information in person at the pharmacy. There is no association between monthly net income and highest educational attainment and the use of over-the-counter medicine based on information obtained from an advertising campaign. The results show no relationship between the education, income, age group of Hungarian-speaking consumers in Slovakia and the use of OTC medicines based on information from advertising campaigns. Only one relationship was found between the age group of the Hungarian-speaking Slovakian consumer and the use of non-prescription medicines based on information from advertising campaigns. Conclusions: The results pointed out that although online OTC medicine purchases have gained ground, personal professional advice is important for the group of customers who buy products in person at the pharmacy. It is advisable for companies producing OTC preparations to focus both on consumers who prefer online ordering and those who prefer personal shopping. What is much more important is that the pharmacy staff is still an essential source of information, and they also help with self-diagnosis. From the sales perspective, it is important to maintain online trade as consumers demand it.

Explanation of Socio-economic Inequality in Medicine Use: A Cross-sectional Analysis from Iran.

Despite the favorable progress in the production of medicines, there is no significant access to these important health inputs among different socio-economic groups. This study aimed to measure and explain socio-economic inequality in prescribed and non-prescribed medicine use in Iran. Data were obtained from a recent household survey on health services in Iran conducted in 2016. The Erreygers concentration index (ECI) was used to measure socio-economic inequality in the use of prescribed and non-prescribed medicines. In addition, Decomposition analysis was conducted to explain socio-economic inequality. The ECI revealed pro-rich socio-economic inequality in prescribed medicine use (ECI = 0.067, SE = 0.010), indicating that prescribed medicine use was concentrated on the better-offs. On the other hand, this index showed pro-poor inequality in non-prescribed medicine use (ECI = -0.064, SE = 0.009). Decomposition analysis showed that economic status and place of residence were the main determinants of socio-economic inequality in prescribing medicines. These factors and the number of health care needs explained the majority of socio-economic inequality in non-prescribed medicine use. Despite previous positive beliefs, we found remarkable socio-economic inequality in the use of medicines in Iran. Facilitating access to pharmaceutical services for disadvantaged households and rural residents and promoting of national essential medicines list could be recommended against socio-economic inequality in the pharmaceutical market of Iran.

Over-the-counter Medication Use during Pandemic: Lessons Learned from Covid-19 in Lithuania

Abstract Background Despite the growing awareness about nonprescription misuse of anxiolytics, there is not much evidence about people’s behavior during the covid-19 lockdown when access to healthcare specialists was limited. Over the counter drug use has risen sharply in the past decades among college students and junior health care workers, yet, there are few studies reporting on the use of nonprescription medicine groups during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods A cross-sectional study among 163 second-year medical students of the Lithuanian University of Health Sciences was conducted in Kaunas, Lithuania with self-reported measures of anxiety and insomnia and comparing nonprescription medicine use for anxiety and insomnia before and during the covid-19 pandemic. Results A near two-fold increase in the prevalence of anxiety and insomnia among Lithuanian medical students was reported during the covid-19 pandemic compared to before the onset of the pandemic (p < 0,001). The use of nonprescription medication increased during the pandemic (p < 0,001), in particular anxiolytics (p < 0,05). Once-weekly anxiolytic medication use increased from 8,0% before the pandemic to 14,7% during the pandemic. Regular nonprescription medicine use (2-3 times weekly) had more than tripled, from 2,4% to 9,2%. During the pandemic, almost a fifth of the respondents were increasingly searching for information on anxiolytic nonprescription medication online during the pandemic compared to before the pandemic. Conclusions During the covid-19 pandemic, the prevalence of anxiety and insomnia increased among Lithuanian medical students, along with the practice of anxiolytic nonprescription medications. Lithuanian medical students increasingly practiced self-medication during the pandemic and found the information on nonprescription medication increasingly online, which offers opportunities for telemedicine. Key messages • During the covid-19 pandemic, the prevalence of anxiety and insomnia increased among Lithuanian medical students, along with the practice of anxiolytic nonprescription medications. • During covid-19, Lithuanian medical students increasingly retrieved information on nonprescription medication online instead of consulting a pharmacist, offering opportunities for telemedicine.

Use of Nonprescription and Prescription Drugs and Drug Information Sources among Breastfeeding Women in Japan: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Breastfeeding women may experience various health issues that require medication. This survey aimed to gain insights into the use of nonprescription and prescription drugs by breastfeeding women in Japan. A cross-sectional study involving women with children aged under two years was conducted in Fukuoka, Japan. Nonprescription drugs were used by 26% of participants in the breastfed-only group, 41% in the breastfed more than half the time group, 55% in the formula-fed more than half the time group, and 82% in the formula-fed-only group. We found that when breastfeeding rates decreased, the use of nonprescription drugs increased (p < 0.05, Cochran–Armitage test for trend). There were significant differences in the use of nonprescription cold medicines and oral analgesics between the formula-fed and breastfed groups, but a nonsignificant difference in prescription drugs use between the groups. These results indicated breastfeeding had a significant influence on use of nonprescription drugs, which was not observed with prescription drugs. Breastfeeding women commonly used the Internet to obtain information on both nonprescription and prescription drugs; however, this did not influence medication use.

Self-medication consultations in community pharmacy: an exploratory study on teams’ performance, client-reported outcomes and satisfaction

Background:Community pharmacy teams (CPTs) have an established role in assisting self-medication, contributing to the safe and effective use of non-prescription medicines.Objective:The study aimed to describe CPTs’ performance in self-medication consultation, client-reported outcomes, and satisfaction. A secondary purpose was to develop an explanatory model for better understanding clients’ satisfaction with this service.Methods:Descriptive, cross-sectional exploratory study. Data were collected in a purposive sample of pharmacy clients recruited in six community pharmacies in Portugal. CPTs adopted a structured approach to self-medication consultations, encompassing 11 quality criteria (five for case evaluation and six for counselling). An evaluation score, a counselling score and an overall quality score were estimated. Client-reported outcomes and satisfaction were ascertained via a follow-up telephone interview. Besides descriptive statistics, the association with several independent variables on the clients’ overall satisfaction was explored, using linear regression.Results:Product-based dispensing was more frequent for lower educated clients. Reported compliance with the criteria by CPTs was overall high (93.95% of maximum compliance), mostly missing the ‘other medication’ questioning. Most clients (93%) reported improvement after the consultation. Clients’ satisfaction score was 4.70 out of 5. The variables that seem to better explain clients’ overall satisfaction are pharmacy loyalty, the evaluation score, and the female gender.Conclusions:Clients’ reported outcomes were favourable, as well as satisfaction with the service. Clients’ satisfaction appears to be determined by consultation quality (evaluation score), suggesting the advancement of the pharmacists’ clinical role. A larger study is warranted to confirm these findings.

Use of internet for practice of self-medication: We are heading toward an era of internet pharmacy

Background: Internet has become the major source of health-related information, leading to a growing trend toward unsupervised self-medication using internet. This survey was conducted to assess the extent of internet use to obtain health information/self-medication, their perception regarding side effects of drug used, types/quality of information, and which site was commonly surfed for information. Materials and Methods: A web-based tool (Google Forms) was used to develop a questionnaire to obtain information about extent and impact of internet on self-medication by general population. The questionnaire included 9 questions along with demographic details of participants. The questionnaire was sent to participants by WhatsApp and E-mail and their responses were analyzed. Results: Four hundred and forty-eight (56%) persons responded to survey. There were 226 (50.4%) males and 222 (49.6%) females. The average age of responders was 35.10 years. Overall, 59.8% of responders used internet to obtain health information and self-medication. Out of these, 54.47% took allopathic medications without consulting the doctors. The majority of persons self-medicated for minor illnesses, but 11.6% of persons self-diagnosed and self-medicated for serious illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, cancers, and psychological problems. 23.2% of peoples think that information on internet carries no risk for self-medication and 21% think that internet use can be a substitute for consulting a doctor. Google was the most common site (93.8%) surfed by participants. The health information provided on net was perceived as very good by 43.7%. Conclusions: There are growing trends toward the self-medication using internet. The health information on internet should be made easier, simpler, and safer to achieve positive health outcomes, but patients should be discouraged for self-medication. To support the safe and appropriate use of nonprescription medicines, minimum practice standards should be set by the governing medical bodies in each country.

Non-prescription medicine use, misuse, and abuse

Non-prescription medicine use, misuse, and abuse

Socio-economic and behavioral determinants of prescription and non-prescription medicine use: the case of Turkey

Demographic and socio-economic factors determine pharmaceutical health care utilization for individuals. Prescription and non-prescription medicine use are expected to have different determinants. Even though prescription and non-prescription medicine use is being well researched for developed countries, there are only a few studies for developing countries. This paper aims to analyze the socio-economic and individual characteristics that determine the use of prescription and non-prescription medicine. We examine the issue for the specific case of Turkey since Turkey's health system has undertaken significant changes in the last two decades and especially after 2003 with the "Health Transformation Programme". Data from the nationally representative "Health Survey" are used in the analysis. The data set covers the 2008-2016 period with two-year intervals. Pooled multivariate logistic regression is employed to identify the underlying determinants of prescription and non-prescription medicine use. When compared to 2008, non-prescription medicine use decreases until 2012, however, an increasing trend appears after 2012. For prescription medicine use, a decreasing trend emerges after 2012. Findings from the marginal effects indicate that for non-prescription medicine use, the highest effect stems from the health status. For prescription medicine use, the highest marginal effects arise from age, health and employment status indicating the importance of the need and predisposing factors. Decreasing non-prescription medicine use largely depends on easier access to health care service utilization. Although having a health insurance has a positive relationship with prescription medicine use, there is still a problem for individuals living a rural area and heaving a lower income level since they are more likely to use non-prescription medicine.

Writing and dispensing safe prescriptions

Writing and dispensing safe prescriptions

The Extent and Factors Associated with Non-Prescription Medicine Use in Eastern India – A Cross-Sectional Survey

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Objective:</strong> To assess the extent, pattern and determinants of non-prescription medicine use in an urban area of eastern India. <strong>Methods:</strong> A descriptive cross-sectional survey with total 392 subjects was carried out for 3 months by a structured questionnaire to assess the extent, pattern and determinants of non-prescription medicine use amongst the patients at a community retail medicine shop and a pharmacy running in Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model in a government hospital. <strong>Results:</strong> Our study found that 61.4% of the consumers indulged in the practice of self-medication. The commonest reason for self medication was a prevailing tendency in the community followed by cost-saving and convenience. The most commonly used medicines were antacids (43.4%) followed by analgesics-antipyretics (42.6%). It was found that only 12.5% completed an ongoing course of antibiotics. Consumption of ORS was commoner in diarrhoea than vomiting and only a few (13%) of the patients dissolved the ORS powder as directed. Only 9.7% of the subjects thought non-prescription medicine use is safe. Regarding the various types of medicine preparations used by them from the two types of pharmacy, a significant difference was noted only for eye drops (p = 0.003). This result might have been obtained due to prevailing ocular infections in the selected study population and underreporting at the Ophthalmology OPD of the nearest hospital. <strong>Conclusion:</strong> The current study has documented the extent of, factors associated with, and the pattern of non-prescription medicine use resulting in a surge of self-medication practice in urban area. <p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Key words:</strong> Non-prescription medicine use, Self-medication, PPP model, Retail pharmacy, Survey.

The use of non-prescription medicines during lactation: A qualitative study of community pharmacists' attitudes and perspectives.

Community pharmacists play a significant role in the provision of non-prescription medicines. There is evidence that women self-medicate and use non-prescription medicines whilst breastfeeding. Studies have demonstrated that breastfeeding women are likely to seek advice from pharmacists, presenting a unique opportunity for pharmacists to provide on-going support of these women especially in relation to the appropriate use of non-prescription medicines. This study aimed to explore community pharmacists' attitudes and perspectives towards the use of non-prescription medicines during breastfeeding. This exploratory study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with 30 community pharmacists in Western Australia, between July and September 2013. Transcribed data were analysed using descriptive and qualitative approaches. NVivo® Version 10.0 was used to organise qualitative data and quotations to facilitate thematic analysis. Four major themes emerged. Despite the positive attitudes and favourable perceived knowledge level, participants often found themselves in a dilemma when required to make clinical recommendations especially in situations where there was a therapeutic need for treatment but clear guidelines or evidence to suggest safety of the medicines or treatment in lactation was absent. Despite the popularity of complementary medicines, participants felt more confident in providing advice in relation to conventional over complementary medicines. Whilst medication safety is within the field of expertise of pharmacists, the absence of information and safety data was seen as a major challenge and barrier to enable pharmacists to confidently provide evidence-based recommendations. This study has enhanced our understanding of the attitudes and perspectives of community pharmacists towards the use of non-prescription, including complementary medicines, during breastfeeding. Future studies are warranted to confirm the safety of commonly used or requested medicines in breastfeeding. University training and continuing education for pharmacists should include the latest information available regarding the use of both conventional and complementary medicines throughout lactation.

Dangers of Nonprescription Medicines: Educating and Counseling Older Adults.

To provide a review for health care providers regarding appropriate education and counseling for older adults involving commonly used nonprescription medicines with potential for adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, or toxicity when incorrectly selected or overused. A literature search was performed using MEDLINE and PUBMED to locate relevant articles. DAILYMED was used for manufacturer dosage recommendations. Additionally, peer-reviewed textbooks were consulted for evidence-based standards of care. Articles were reviewed and selected for inclusion based on relevance to the subject and accuracy of information provided. Articles chosen were published between March 2008 and December 2016. Additionally, several textbook chapters providing information for nonprescription medicines chosen for evaluation in this review were used. Nonprescription medicines are accessible and widely used by older adults. Polypharmacy and drug duplication are concerns because of negative outcomes. Given the accessibility and knowledge of pharmacists, they are often asked questions regarding nonprescription medicines. Pharmacists have a duty and responsibility to commit to lifelong learning and to provide appropriate education and counseling on the use of nonprescription medicines. This will help decrease overall health care costs and potential negative problems associated with polypharmacy among older adults that include adverse effects, toxicity, and drug-drug interactions.

Determinants of Health Care Services Utilization among First Generation Afghan Migrants in Istanbul.

There is insufficient empirical evidence on the correlates of health care utilization of irregular migrants currently living in Turkey. The aim of this study was to identify individual level determinants associated with health service and medication use. One hundred and fifty-five Afghans completed surveys assessing service utilization including encounters with primary care physicians and outpatient specialists in addition to the use of prescription and nonprescription medicines. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were employed to examine associations between service use and a range of predisposing, enabling, and perceived need factors. Health services utilization was lowest for outpatient specialists (20%) and highest for nonprescription medications (37%). Female gender and higher income predicted encounters with primary care physicians. Income, and other enabling factors such as family presence in Turkey predicted encounters with outpatient specialists. Perceived illness-related need factors had little to no influence on use of services; however, asylum difficulties increased the likelihood for encounters with primary care physicians, outpatient services, and the use of prescription medications. This study suggests that health services use among Afghan migrants in Turkey is low considering the extent of their perceived illness-related needs, which may be further exacerbated by the precarious conditions in which they live.

ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND PRACTICE OF SELF-MEDICATION AMONG HARAR HEALTH SCIENCES COLLEGE STUDENTS, HARAR, EASTERN ETHIOPIA

Background : Self-medication is the selection and use of non-prescription medicines by individuals’ own initiatives to treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms. It is practiced significantly worldwide even though its type, extent and reasons for its practice may vary. No data is available on the current status of self-medication practices among students of Harar Health Science College (HHSC). Therefore, this study aimed to assess basic information on self-medication practices among students of HHSC, Harar, Ethiopia. Methods : Institutional based cross sectional study was conducted on students in HHSC from March 21 to March 25, 2016. Study participants were determined by two step stratified sampling followed by simple random sampling techniques. Data was collected using self administered questionnaire prepared in English. Data was entered and analyzed using SPSS version 16. Cross tabulation, Pearson Chi-square (χ 2 ) test and logistic regression were applied to show the association between selected categorical variables with self medication. Data was then presented using tables, figures and charts. Results: Out of the total 237 participants 112(36.50%) were males and 125(52.7%) were females. The prevalence of the practice of self-medication was high (70%) with most frequently reported problems being headache and mild pain (47.3) followed by GI problem (30.8%) and eye and ear symptoms (29.1%). Most of the respondents (55.7 %) read leaflet and 34.6 % of the respondents had some knowledge about the definition of self-medication. The two main reasons for self-medication were knowledge gain (37.6%) and time saving (28.7%). Antibiotic (47%) and pain killer (37%) were the two most frequently consumed medications. Previous prescriptions (33.9%) followed by Pharmacist/druggist (24.6%) were the two most frequently reported source of drug information for self-medication in this study. Besides, 70% of the respondents agreed with the practice of self-medication in the present study. There were statistically significant differences between respondents who reported practicing self-medication based on study year (p<0.05). Most respondents had positive attitude towards self-medication and antibiotics were the drugs most commonly used for self-medication without a prescription despite the fact that they were aware of the risk of development of antimicrobial resistance. Conclusion: The practice of self-medication was common and, in most cases, inappropriate. Most students had a positive attitude towards self-medication. Hence, drug authorities and health professionals need to educate students about the pros and cons of self-medication. Keywords : self medication, knowledge, attitude, practice

Prevalence of self-medication in Brazil and associated factors.

ABSTRACTOBJECTIVE To analyze the prevalence and associated factors regarding the use of medicines by self-medication in Brazil.METHODS This cross-sectional population-based study was conducted using data from the PNAUM (National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), collected between September 2013 and February 2014 by interviews at the homes of the respondents. All people who reported using any medicines not prescribed by a doctor or dentist were classified as self-medication practitioners. Crude and adjusted prevalence ratios (Poisson regression) and their respective 95% confidence intervals were calculated in order to investigate the factors associated with the use of self-medication by medicines. The independent variables were: sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions and access to and use of health services. In addition, the most commonly consumed medicines by self-medication were individually identified.RESULTS The self-medication prevalence in Brazil was 16.1% (95%CI 15.0–17.5), with it being highest in the Northeast region (23.8%; 95%CI 21.6–26.2). Following the adjusted analysis, self-medication was observed to be associated with females, inhabitants from the North, Northeast and Midwest regions and individuals that have had one, or two or more chronic diseases. Analgesics and muscle relaxants were the therapeutic groups most used for self-medication, with dipyrone being the most consumed medicines. In general, most of the medicines used for self-medication were classified as non-prescriptive (65.5%).CONCLUSIONS Self-medication is common practice in Brazil and mainly involves the use of non-prescription medicines; therefore, the users of such should be made aware of the possible risks.

The usage of over the counter (OTC) medicines and traditional medicines (TMs) for common ailments in selected urban and rural areas in Sri Lanka

Population-based studies regarding attitudes, knowledge, beliefs and practices of the use of non-prescription medicines and traditional medicines among the general public are rare in Sri Lanka. Public knowledge and understanding influence the pattern of self-medication. It will also provide further insight for the development and evaluation of health education and disease prevention strategies. Thus this study was conducted to investigate the usage of over the counter (OTC) medicines and traditional medicines (TM) for common ailments in a selected urban and rural area in Sri Lanka. This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted during June and July 2013 at Geli-Oya Muruthagahamula division (rural) and Bahirawakanda (urban) Gramaniladhari areas in Kandy District, Central Province, Sri Lanka. Volunteers (n=400) between 18 - 65 years of age were selected by a random sampling method. An interviewer administered questionnaire was used to collect data from voluntary participants via a face to face interview. Written consent was obtained from participants before interviewing. Healthcare providers were excluded to avoid biased information. Among the 400 participants (200 from each division) 82% had the opinion that self-medication is enough to cure common ailments. Almost half of our respondents (58%) were likely to practice both OTC drugs and TMs but TMs were preferred by many of the people in both areas (61.25%). Younger adults (72%) were using self-medication more than the elderly people (27.25%). Out of the respondents OTC drugs were preferred more by women and TMs were preferred by men. Accessibility of health care didn’t have an impact on the choice of self-medication. Paracetamol (97.50%) and the herbal preparation Samahan® (56.75%) were the most frequently used OTC drugs and TMs respectively. There was a significant association (p The usage of self-medication is widespread among people in both urban and rural areas and self-medication has significant association with the two selected areas. The major factor leading to the use of self-care behavior is patient satisfaction with the self-medication system. The accessibility of health care services is not a factor that influences the choice of self-medication.

South Asian and Middle Eastern patients' perspectives on medicine-related problems in the United Kingdom.

There has been little research which specifically examines medicine use among South Asian (SA) and Middle Eastern (ME) groups, although evidence suggests that medicine-related needs may be poorly met for these groups. To describe medicine-related problems (MRPs) experienced by SA and ME patients from their perspectives and identify possible contributory factors that may be specific to their cultures. The data were collected in seven pharmacies in London, United Kingdom (UK). The study was a qualitative study. Patients were from SA and ME origins, aged over 18 and prescribed three or more regular medicines. Patients were identified when presenting with a prescription. The data were collected in 80 face-to-face semi-structured interviews using Gordon's MRPs tool. Interviews were audiotaped, transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically using Gordon's coding frame and Nvivo 10 software. Describing MRPs experienced by SA and ME patients from their perspectives and identifying possible contributory factors that may be specific to their cultures. Results Eighty participants (61 % male) had mean (SD) age 58 (13.4) years and a mean (SD) of 8 (4) medicines. Interviews revealed that several factors contributed to the development of MRPs; some appeared to be specific to SA and ME cultures and others were similar to the general population. The factors that were reported to be specific to SA and ME groups comprised religious practices and beliefs, use of non-prescription medicines, extent of family support, and travelling abroad--to patient's homeland or to take religious journeys. Illiteracy, language and communication barriers, lack of translated resources, perceptions of healthcare providers, and difficulty consulting a doctor of the same gender may also contribute to the problems. Many of these factors could be expected to influence patient's safety, adherence, and informed decision-making. This study demonstrated that SA and ME patients have their own problems and needs regarding both medicine use and service access. By uncovering particular problems experienced by these groups, the study can inform healthcare professionals to support SA and ME patients in the use of their medicines.

Quality supply of nonprescription medicines in Portuguese community pharmacy: An exploratory case study.

Inappropriate use of non-prescription medicines (NPM) can increase morbidity, mortality and health care associated costs. Pharmacists have a well-established role in self-medication; however, the literature shows that pharmacies performance in the supply of NPM is often suboptimal. To explore the interaction and dependability of pharmacy staff use of oral language, as well as staff's own assessment of reasons underlying their behavior during consultation regarding NPM. In a case-study design, a high street urban community pharmacy was purposively selected as the setting. Covert patient simulation, using trained simulated patients (SPs), was used to ascertain staff's performance in dispensing NPM, via 4 symptom-based scenarios (SbS) and 3 product-based scenarios (PbS). Performance data were converted into 2 composite indexes: the Interpersonal Performance Index (IPI) and Technical Performance Index (TPI). Audiotaped interactions were transcribed verbatim and participants' utterances were identified, time stamped and coded employing the eight higher level categories of a framework inspired by the Roter interaction analysis system (RIAS). The transcripts of the in-depth interviews were analyzed using the Framework Approach. The tripartite model of attitudes was employed to develop the thematic framework. Ten SP visits were considered for analysis. Overall, the mean TPI score was 50% and the mean IPI score was 78%. TPI was higher for SbS (63%) than PbS (31%), whilst there was little difference IPI between SbS (79%) and PbS (76%). The mean number of questions in the evaluation section of technical performance was 4 for SbS and 1 for PbS. There was a clear predominance of closed questions (32%), when compared with open questions (5.5%). Providing advice was more frequent (23.5%) than giving information (12.5%). In line with the SPs data, comparison of information-gathering in SbS and PbS shows that more questions were asked in the former (44% versus 31%), which resulted in more information given by SPs (56% and 49%, respectively). Staff's reaction to their performance showed all the 3 dimensions of attitude: affective, cognitive and behavioral. Divergence between staff's views on what should be done in NPM consultations and performance data surfaced in the interviewees' accounts on direct product requests. While performance data shows that information gathering was scarce, its importance was overtly acknowledged. The supply of NPM appears to be influenced by both cognitive and emotional issues. This suggests that multimodal improvement interventions are needed, targeting not only technical and interpersonal communication skills but also the organizational context. Managerial tools such as the balanced scorecard, may prove valuable in addressing improvement in the quality supply of NPM.