Use Of Long-acting Reversible Contraceptive Methods Research Articles

Implementation and evaluation of a large-scale postpartum family planning program in Rwanda: study protocol for a clinic-randomized controlled trial

BackgroundThough the Rwandan Ministry of Health (MOH) prioritizes the scale-up of postpartum family planning (PPFP) programs, uptake and sustainability of PPFP services in Rwanda are low. Furthermore, highly effective long-acting reversible contraceptive method use (LARC), key in effective PPFP programs, is specifically low in Rwanda. We previously pilot tested a supply-demand intervention which significantly increased the use of postpartum LARC (PPLARC) in Rwandan government clinics. In this protocol, we use an implementation science framework to test whether our intervention is adaptable to large-scale implementation, cost-effective, and sustainable.MethodsIn a type 2 effectiveness-implementation hybrid study, we will evaluate the impact of our PPFP intervention on postpartum LARC (PPLARC) uptake in a clinic-randomized trial in 12 high-volume health facilities in Kigali, Rwanda. We will evaluate this hybrid study using the RE-AIM framework. The independent effectiveness of each PPFP demand creation strategy on PPLARC uptake among antenatal clinic attendees who later deliver in a study facility will be estimated. To assess sustainability, we will assess the intervention adoption, implementation, and maintenance. Finally, we will evaluate intervention cost-effectiveness and develop a national costed implementation plan.DiscussionAdaptability and sustainability within government facilities are critical aspects of our proposal, and the MOH and other local stakeholders will be engaged from the outset. We expect to deliver PPFP counseling to over 21,000 women/couples during the project period. We hypothesize that the intervention will significantly increase the number of stakeholders engaged, PPFP providers and promoters trained, couples/clients receiving information about PPFP, and PPLARC uptake comparing intervention versus standard of care. We expect PPFP client satisfaction will be high. Finally, we also hypothesize that the intervention will be cost-saving relative to the standard of care. This intervention could dramatically reduce unintended pregnancy and abortion, as well as improve maternal and newborn health. Our PPFP implementation model is designed to be replicable and expandable to other countries in the region which similarly have a high unmet need for PPFP.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT05056545. Registered on 31 March 2022.

PIH28 Adherence to Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptive Methods in Low- Income Young Women from the Caribbean Region of Colombia

Adolescent pregnancies are more likely to occur in poor communities, commonly driven by lack of education and employment opportunities. We aimed to estimate the subdermal implant discontinuation rate and to establish the factors associated with the discontinuation of long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods in a cohort of poor women in the Caribbean region of Colombia. A retrospective cohort study of LARC method use through review of administrative record data was conducted. A population of 2,192 adolescents and young women between 10-24 years old enrolled in the “SER JOVEN” program and who received subdermal implants between 2015-2018 was considered for eligibility. This program is for young people affiliated to a health care company in the Caribbean region of Colombia. We realized a follow-up time-person of the retrospective cohort, and we estimated the incidence of discontinuation of the subdermal implant at six months, one year, two years, and three years. Kaplan-Meier estimator for survival curves, and Cox proportional hazard model were used to ascertain factors associated with method discontinuation risk. A p-value <0.050 was considered significant. A total of 2,192 women were selected with a mean (standard deviation -SD) age of 19.4 (2.8) years and a mean duration of use of subdermal implant of 2.6 (0.8) years. We estimated the subdermal implant discontinuation rate at six months in 0.7% [CI95% 0.3-1.1], a year later in 1.5% [CI95% 1-2], two years later in 2.1% [CI95% 1.5-2.7] and finally at three years in 2.2% [CI95% 1.6-2.8]. Women who stated they have children at baseline were about 70% less risk to discontinue subdermal implants (HR: 0.3 [CI95% 0.1 – 0.8]). Adolescent pregnancy is a public health problem, and it is an important cause of poverty and illness. Then, the use of subdermal implants is an effective alternative to prevent unintended pregnancies.

Increasing access to family planning services among women receiving medications for opioid use disorder: A pilot randomized trial examining a peer-led navigation intervention

ObjectiveHigh rates of unintended pregnancy occur among women with opioid use disorder (OUD). OUD treatment settings may provide an ideal opportunity to address the family planning needs of patients. However, few studies have rigorously evaluated interventions designed to address family planning needs in the OUD treatment setting. This study assessed the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of a peer-led navigation intervention designed to educate and link women receiving medications for OUD to family planning services. MethodsThe study recruited women from four OUD treatment programs in Denver, Colorado, to participate in a pilot randomized controlled trial from March 2018 to February 2019. Eligible participants were English-speaking adult females who were neither pregnant nor desiring a pregnancy and who were not using a long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) method. Participants completed a baseline survey, and the study randomized them to receive a two-session, peer-led family planning navigation intervention or usual care. The study assessed feasibility by participant engagement in the intervention. The study used follow-up self-report surveys and electronic health record data to assess intervention acceptability and intervention efficacy for the primary outcomes of a family planning visit and use of a LARC method. ResultsThe study enrolled 119 women who were randomized to the Sexual Health Initiative for Navigation and Empowerment (SHINE) peer-led navigation intervention (n = 56) or usual care (n = 63). The average age was 32 (SD = 6.4); 76% were receiving methadone, 24% were receiving buprenorphine and 19% reported a treatment provider had ever discussed family planning with them. Most had a previous pregnancy (82%) and of these, 93% reported an unplanned pregnancy. Among intervention participants, 93% completed the first navigation session, 90% felt that intervention topics were important, 76% indicated that the information was new, and 82% found working with a peer helpful. At six months postbaseline, significantly more (p = 0.01) intervention participants (36%) received a family planning visit compared to control participants (14%). There was no between-group difference on use of LARC methods. ConclusionsA peer-led family planning navigation intervention was feasible to implement, acceptable to participants, and showed evidence of preliminary efficacy. This model may be an effective and potentially sustainable approach to support the family planning needs of women in treatment for OUD.

Interventions to improve the use of long-acting reversible contraceptive methods at primary health centers in Burkina Faso.

To assess the effects of strengthening family planning capacity on the uptake of long acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods at two primary health centers. Between April 2016 and March 2017, the Society of Gynecologists and Obstetricians of Burkina Faso (SOGOB) increased the capacity of two primary health centers in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, to offer LARC methods by training staff and providing family planning equipment and commodities. Uptake of LARC methods was compared between the year preceding the intervention and the year during the intervention. Within a year, the number of new users of family planning increased 2.8-fold from 2936 new users before the intervention to 8267 during it. The rate of new users of contraception increased 1.9-fold (14.9% vs 28.1%; P<0.001) for all LARC methods, 2.4-fold for intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs), and 1.7-fold for subdermal contraceptive implants. The proportion of new users of the copper IUCD younger than 25years was higher during the intervention than before it (57.2% vs 46.9%; P=0.026). The SOGOB's family planning intervention resulted in an increase in the use of LARC methods at the two primary health centers.

Long-acting reversible contraception for adolescents

Long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods are the recommended methods for adolescents and young adult women. Etonogestrel subdermal implant, the copper intrauterine device and levonorgestrel intrauterine devices are the currently used LARC methods. LARC methods provide effective contraception by preventing fertilization; however, none has an abortifacient effect. The etonogestrel implant is the most effective method with a Pearl index of 0.05. None of the LARC methods has any adverse effect on bone mineral density. Rare safety concerns associated with intrauterine device use include device expulsion, uterine perforation, pelvic inflammatory disease, and ectopic pregnancy. Fertility resumes rapidly upon discontinuation of LARC method. A number of factors have been shown to be barriers or facilitators of LARC method use by adolescents. This article reviews clinical aspects of use for LARC methods for the primary care medical practitioner.

Determinants of Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptive Method Utilization among Married Women in Assosa Town in Western Ethiopia: A Case-Control Study

Background & aim: The prevalence rate of contraceptive use in Ethiopia is 42%; however, only 5% of Ethiopians use the long-acting contraceptive methods. This rate is 4.8% in Benishangul Gumuz Region in this country. Regarding this, the present study aimed to assess the determinants of long-acting reversible contraceptive method use among married women in Assosa town, Ethiopia. Methods: This community-based unmatched case-control study was conducted on 384 married women from April 26 to May 10, 2016. The study population consisted of the users (case group; n=128) and none-users (control group; n=256) of one of the long-acting methods. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the variables having a significant association. Results: A total of 382 women participated in this study with a response rate of 99.5%. The determinants of long-acting contraceptive use were identified as the lack of decision-making power (OR=0.29, 95% CI: 0.11-0.80), poor attitude toward such birth control methods (OR=0.13, 95% CI: 0.06-0.29), wrong expectation regarding method availability (OR=0.23, 95% CI: 0.07-0.73), low level of knowledge about long-acting contraceptive methods (OR=0.19, 95% CI: 0.08-0.47), future intention to get pregnant (OR=0.39, 95% CI: 0.18-0.82), and walking distance of more than 30 min from associated health facilities (OR=0.36, 95% CI: 0.15-0.85). Conclusion: Women’s decision-making power, knowledge and attitude regarding contraceptives, expectation regarding method availability, distance from associated facilities, and intention to get pregnant in the future were identified as the independent predictors of long-acting contraceptive method use.

Two year continuation rates of contraceptive methods in France: a cohort study from the French national health insurance database

Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the continuation rates of reimbursed contraceptive methods in French real-world conditions.Methods: A retrospective cohort study using a representative sample of the national health insurance database, the General Sample of Beneficiaries (Echantillon Généralistes des Bénéficiaires [EGB]), was performed between 2006 and 2012. Selected women were ≥15 years of age and had started a reimbursed contraceptive method between 2009 and 2012 without prior reimbursement for an implant or an intrauterine contraceptive method between 2006 and 2008. The outcome of interest was the continuation rates, defined as the probability of women initiating a contraceptive method and continuing to use the same method over time. Continuation rates were assessed for up to 2 years. Only the first contraceptive method used during the study period was considered in the analysis. Non-parametric Kaplan–Meier survival analysis was used to assess continuation rates.Results: A population of 42,365 women representative of the 4,109,405 French women initiating any reimbursed method between 2009 and 2012 was identified in the EGB: 74.5% of women used oral contraceptives, 12.8% the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS), 9.2% the copper intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) and 3.5% the subdermal etonogestrel (ENG) implant. The 2 year continuation rates varied from 9.1% for progestin-only oral contraceptives, 27.6% for first to second generation combined oral contraceptives (COCs) and 33.4% for third generation COCs to 83.6% for the ENG implant, 88.1% for the Cu-IUD and 91.1% for the LNG-IUS.Conclusion: This study conducted in real-world conditions showed that long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods remain rarely used in France despite high continuation rates over 2 years. Increasing the use of LARC methods is therefore a public health priority.

Six-month expulsion of postplacental copper intrauterine devices placed after vaginal delivery

Immediate placement of an intrauterine device after vaginal delivery is safe and convenient, but longitudinal data describing clinical outcomes have been limited. We sought to determine the proportion of TCu380A (copper) intrauterine devices expelled, partially expelled, malpositioned, and retained, as well as contraceptive use by 6 months postpartum, and determine risk factors for expulsion and partial expulsion. In this prospective, observational study, women who received a postplacental TCu380A intrauterine device at vaginal delivery were enrolled postpartum. Participants returned for clinical follow-up at 6weeks, and for a research visit with a pelvic exam and ultrasound at 6months. We recorded intrauterine device outcomes and 6-month contraceptive use. Partial expulsion was defined as an intrauterine device protruding from the external cervical os, or a transvaginal ultrasound showing the distal end of the intrauterine device below the internal os of the cervix. Multinomial logistic regression models identified risk factors associated with expulsion and partial expulsion by 6 months. The area under the receiver operating characteristics curve was used to assess the ability of a string check to predict the correct placement of a postplacental intrauterine device. The primary outcome was the proportion of intrauterine devices expelled at 6 months. We enrolled 200 women. Of 162 participants with follow-up data at 6 months, 13 (8.0%; 95% confidence interval, 4.7-13.4%) experienced complete expulsion and 26 (16.0%; 95% confidence interval, 11.1-22.6%) partial expulsion. Of 25 malpositioned intrauterine devices (15.4%; 95% confidence interval, 10.2-21.9%), 14 were not at the fundus (8.6%; 95% confidence interval, 5.2-14.1%) and 11 were rotated within the uterus (6.8%; 95% confidence interval, 3.8-11.9%). Multinomial logistic regression modeling indicated that higher parity (odds ratio, 2.05; 95% confidence interval, 1.21-3.50; P= .008) was associated with expulsion. Provider specialty (obstetrics vs family medicine; odds ratio, 5.31; 95% confidence interval, 1.20-23.59; P= .03) and gestational weight gain (normal vs excess; odds ratio, 9.12; 95% confidence interval, 1.90-43.82; P= .004) were associated with partial expulsion. Long-acting reversible contraceptive method use at 6 months was 80.9% (95% confidence interval, 74.0-86.6%). At 6 weeks postpartum, 35 of 149 (23.5%; 95% confidence interval, 16.9-31.1%) participants had no intrauterine device strings visible. Sensitivity of a string check to detect an incorrectly positioned intrauterine device was 36.2%, and specificity of the string check to predict a correctly positioned intrauterine device was 84.5%. This corresponds to an area under the receiver operating characteristics curve of 0.5. This prospective assessment of postplacental TCu380A intrauterine device placement, with ultrasound to confirm device position, finds a complete intrauterine device expulsion proportion of 8.0% at 6 months. The association of increasing parity with expulsion is consistent with prior research. The clinical significance of covariates associated with partial expulsion (provider specialty and gestational weight gain) is unclear. Due to the observational study design, any associations cannot imply causality. The proportion of partially expelled and malpositioned intrauterine devices was high, and the area under the receiver operating characteristics curve of 0.5 indicates that a string check is a poor test for assessing device position. Women considering a postplacental intrauterine device should be counseled about the risk of position abnormalities, as well as the possibility of nonvisible strings, which may complicate clinical follow-up. The clinical significance of intrauterine device position abnormalities is unknown; future research should evaluate the influence of malposition and partial expulsion on contraceptive effectiveness and side effects.

Effect of Deploying Trained Community Based Reproductive Health Nurses (CORN) on Long‐Acting Reversible Contraception (LARC) Use in Rural Ethiopia: A Cluster Randomized Community Trial

To investigate the effect of innovative means to distribute LARC on contraceptive use, we implemented a three arm, parallel groups, cluster randomized community trial design. The intervention consisted of placing trained community-based reproductive health nurses (CORN) within health centers or health posts. The nurses provided counseling to encourage women to use LARC and distributed all contraceptive methods. A total of 282 villages were randomly selected and assigned to a control arm (n = 94) or 1 of 2 treatment arms (n = 94 each). The treatment groups differed by where the new service providers were deployed, health post or health center. We calculated difference-in-difference (DID) estimates to assess program impacts on LARC use. After nine months of intervention, the use of LARC methods increased significantly by 72.3 percent, while the use of short acting methods declined by 19.6 percent. The proportion of women using LARC methods increased by 45.9 percent and 45.7 percent in the health post and health center based intervention arms, respectively. Compared to the control group, the DID estimates indicate that the use of LARC methods increased by 11.3 and 12.3 percentage points in the health post and health center based intervention arms. Given the low use of LARC methods in similar settings, deployment of contextually trained nurses at the grassroots level could substantially increase utilization of these methods.

Increasing Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptive Method Use Among Alaska Native Women

Long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods are underutilized despite having the highest efficacy rates. This quality improvement project examined an intervention to increase use of structured contraceptive counseling by health care providers and LARC choice among Alaska Native women. Documentation of contraceptive counseling increased from 50% to 96.6% (P = .002), and women were almost 2 times more likely to choose LARC. Results suggest that a short educational intervention had a positive impact on health care provider behavior and LARC uptake.

The use of long-acting reversible contraceptives in Latin America and the Caribbean: current landscape and recommendations.

STUDY QUESTIONCan the high rate and associated burden of unintended pregnancy (UP) and adolescent pregnancy in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) be reduced through wider access to and use of long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods?SUMMARY ANSWERStudies show that impoved access to and use of LARC methods is an effective tool for reducing the high rates of UP, unsafe abortion and abortion-related complications, and maternal deaths (as well as reducing their social and financial burden), and we have provided recommendations to help achieve this in LAC.WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADYLAC comprises 46 countries with 650 million inhabitants, and shows large disparities in socioeconomic development, access to health services and attention to sexual and reproductive health rights. The exercise of these rights and universal access to sexual and reproductive health (SRH) programmes is a key strategy for improving maternal health by reducing the number of UPs, the rate of women’s and child mortality and morbidity, and the number of unsafe abortions. The implementation of SRH programmes in the region has contributed to a decrease in pregnancy rates of more than 50% over 40 years. However, despite this progress, the numbers of UP and adolescent pregnancies are still among the highest worldwide, which can be attributed in large part to the low prevalence of use of LARC methods.STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATIONThis is a position paper with the objective of reviewing the magnitude and burden of UP in LAC, as well as available LARC methods and barriers to their access, with the goal of increasing knowledge and awareness among healthcare professionals (HCP), policymakers and the general public about the potential to reduce UP rates through the increased use of LARC.PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODWe searched the electronic databases of PubMed and EMBASE to identify studies published up to May 2017. We also searched for websites regarding LAC, LARC methods, and UP including, for example, those from the United Nations, the World Health Organization, Pan American Health Organization, the Alan Guttmacher Institute and the United States Agency for International Development. Studies were included if they investigated mainly UP and their consequences as well as the use of LARC methods in the region. During 3 days of meetings, the importance of the studies identified and the appropriateness of inclusion were discussed.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCELAC is not one unit and shows great ethnic diversity as well as economic and cultural differences among the various countries. These differences must be taken into account when developing policies related to disseminating information and combatting misinformation regarding the use of LARC among different audiences, such as adolescents and young women, nulligravidas, indigenous populations and women with disabilities. Furthermore, only some governments have made efforts to increase accessibility to LARC methods, and there is a need to implement training programmes for HCPs, launch education campaigns for the general public, increase access and review the cost-benefit analyses specific to LARC, which have already demonstrated that the upfront cost of LARC is less than the cummulative expense of short-term contraceptives. Recommendations to achieve these goals are presented.LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTIONKnowledge and awareness of the contraceptive method itself and of the mix of individual countries in the region is essential to the development of specific strategies and actions, tailored to each particular country situation, aimed at increasing access to modern contraceptive methods, especially LARC.WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGSHealthcare systems in LAC should consider LARC as a primary option for decreasing UP and adolescent pregnancy. Disseminating information, increasing awareness of their efficacy, removing barriers and improving access to LARC methods are the urgent actions recommended for government, academia, professional organizations, insurance companies and policymakers in order to address this major public health problem in LAC.STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTSThis manuscript was supported by a grant from the Americas Health Foundation (AHF), a 501(c)3 nonprofit organization dedicated to improving healthcare throughout the Latin American Region. LB and IM received additional support from the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) award # 2015/20504-9. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Contraception for Adolescents

Teenage pregnancy rates in the USA have declined for over 20 years, primarily due to increased access to highly effective contraceptive methods. Despite these encouraging trends, US teen pregnancy rates still remain higher than most other developed nations. There are significant medical, psychological, and financial implications and morbidities associated with unintended teen pregnancy and thus primary prevention strategies to decrease rates of teen pregnancy should be a focus for clinicians. New data shows significant benefit of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC)—intrauterine devices or subdermal implants—over shorter acting methods such as the birth control pill. Despite these data, along with policies from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the American Academy of Pediatrics supporting provision of LARC to adolescents, there is a lag among clinicians to communicate this information to their adolescent patients as standard of care. Many providers continue to utilize only short-acting methods such as the pill. Until clinicians more comprehensively adopt use of LARC methods as first-line agents for teenagers, rates of unintended pregnancy within this age group will likely remain high. Working to recognize and decrease barriers to contraceptive access should be a public health priority.

Changes in Use of Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptive Methods Among U.S. Women, 2009-2012.

To examine current levels, current correlates of, and changes in long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) use, including intrauterine devices and implants, among females aged 15-44 years using contraception between 2008-2010 and 2011-2013 with specific attention to associations between race, income, and age and their LARC use. We analyzed data from two rounds of the National Survey of Family Growth, nationally representative samples of females aged 15-44 years, consisting of 6,428 females in 2008-2010 and 5,601 females in 2011-2013. We conducted simple and multivariable logistic regression analyses with adjustments for the sampling design to identify demographic characteristics predictive of LARC use and changes in these patterns between the two time periods. In this cross-sectional, descriptive study, our primary outcome of interest was current prevalence of LARC use among all contraceptive users at the time of the interview. The prevalence of LARC use among contracepting U.S. females increased from 8.5% in 2009 to 11.6% in 2012 (P<.01). The most significant increases occurred among Hispanic females (from 8.5% to 15.1%), those with private insurance (7.1-11.1%), those with fewer than two sexual partners in the previous year (9.2-12.4%), and those who were nulliparous (2.1-5.9%) (all P<.01). In multivariable analyses adjusting for key demographic characteristics, the strongest associations with LARC use in 2012 were parity (adjusted odds ratios [ORs] 4.3-5.5) and having a history of stopping non-LARC hormonal use (adjusted OR 1.9). Women aged 35-44 years (adjusted OR 0.3) were less likely to be LARC users than their counterparts (all P<.001). Poverty status was not associated with LARC use. There were no differences in discontinuation of LARC methods resulting from dissatisfaction between minority women and non-Hispanic white women. During the most recent time period surveyed, use of LARC methods, particularly intrauterine devices, increased almost uniformly across the population of users. III.

Post-abortion initiation of long-acting reversible contraception in New Zealand

BackgroundPost-abortion initiation of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) reduces subsequent abortion rates within 24 months, but the prevalence of post-abortion LARC use in New Zealand is unknown.AimTo describe post-abortion initiation of...

Long-acting reversible contraceptives for teenagers: primary care recommendations.

Long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods are underutilized in the adolescent population despite their superior efficacy over non-LARC methods. The purpose of this article is to discuss the barriers that lead to underutilization of these methods and present an evidence-based approach for the use of LARC methods among adolescents in the primary care setting.

Roles of the pharmacist in the use of safe and highly effective long-acting reversible contraception: an opinion of the women's health practice and research network of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy.

The U.S. population continues to experience an alarmingly high rate of unintended pregnancies that have an impact on individual families and society alike. Lack of effective contraception accounts for most unintended pregnancies, along with incorrect use of contraceptives. The most common reversible contraceptive method used in the United States is the oral contraceptive pill, which has significant failure and discontinuation rates. Use of long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods has been increasing in recent years after efforts to educate providers and patients. Women are more likely to use LARC methods when barriers such as access and cost are removed. An uptake in the use of LARC methods would allow for markedly reduced contraception failure rates and higher user satisfaction and thus higher continuation rates than those seen with current contraception use. Promoting the use of LARC methods is an important strategy in improving both individual and public health outcomes by reducing unintended pregnancies. The pharmacist's role in family planning is expanding and can contribute to these efforts. Although knowledge regarding LARC has not been studied among pharmacists, a knowledge deficit exists among health care professionals in general. Thus pharmacist education and training should include LARC methods along with other contraceptives. The American College of Clinical Pharmacy Women's Health Practice and Research Network advocates for the pharmacist's role in the use of safe and highly effective LARC methods. These roles include educating patients, informing providers, facilitating access by providing referrals, and modifying institutional procedures to encourage provision of LARC methods.

Women or LARC first? Reproductive autonomy and the promotion of long-acting reversible contraceptive methods.

In recent years, enthusiasm about long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods has skyrocketed among U.S. reproductive health care providers because of these methods’ potential to budge the rate of unintended pregnancy, which “stubbornly” persists at the same level despite efforts over many years to reduce it.1 For too long, LARC methods—IUDs and implants—have not been an option that women could easily choose, because of a range of barriers: lack of knowledge,2 providers’ low familiarity and lack of training,3–5 cost6,7 and unavailability in clinics.8 While we strongly believe that these barriers should be reduced so that LARC methods are an integral part of a comprehensive method mix, we also are concerned that unchecked enthusiasm for them can lead to the adoption of programs that, paradoxically, undermine women’s reproductive autonomy. Our concern is that when efforts move beyond ensuring access for all women to promoting use among “high-risk” populations through programs and contraceptive counseling aimed at increasing uptake of LARC methods, the effect is that the most vulnerable women may have their options restricted. To avoid this pitfall, it is vital that programs designed to promote LARC methods put the priorities, needs and preferences of individual women—not the promotion of specific technologies—first. While the possibility that LARC promotion efforts can undermine reproductive autonomy may seem remote in the face of the myriad barriers women face in using these methods, we believe that now is a pivotal time to engage in a critical discussion of this topic, given that use of LARC methods is on the rise,9 new clinical models are showing success in reducing and eliminating barriers to using them10,11 and many women have newfound access to contraceptives thanks to provisions of the Affordable Care Act.12 Such a discussion may illuminate the ways in which narrowing the scope of possibilities for family planning program innovation to promoting a particular class of technologies allows the widespread social inequalities that underlie unintended pregnancy to become invisible. It also may show how prioritizing method effectiveness above other contraceptive features may deny some women reproductive control.

Changes in use of long-acting contraceptive methods in the United States, 2007–2009

To examine trends in the use of long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods-the intrauterine device (IUD) and implant--and the extent to which these methods have replaced permanent sterilization and less effective short-acting methods. We tabulated data from female survey respondents overall and by demographic subgroups. We performed t-tests of the differences in the proportions of female contraceptors using LARC in 2007 and 2009. We also looked at use of LARC, sterilization, other methods, and no method among women at risk of unintended pregnancy. In-home survey. All female respondents to the surveys. None. Current use of LARC methods in 2009, and change in use from 2007. The proportion of contraceptors using LARC increased significantly from 2.4% in 2002 to 3.7% in 2007 and 8.5% in 2009. The increase occurred among women in almost every age, race, education, and income group. Among women at risk of unintended pregnancy, increases in LARC use more than offset decreases in sterilization. LARC methods (primarily IUDs) are contributing to an increase in contraceptive effectiveness in the United States.

Strategies to prevent unintended pregnancy: increasing use of long-acting reversible contraception

Despite increasing contraceptive availability, unintended pregnancy remains a global problem, representing as many as 30% of all known pregnancies. Various strategies have been proposed to reverse this disturbing trend, especially increased use of long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods. In this review we aim to discuss the role of LARC methods and importance of contraceptive counseling in reducing unintended pregnancy rates. References/resources cited were identified based on searches of medical literature (MEDLINE, 1990-2009), bibliographies of relevant publications and the Internet. LARC methods-copper intrauterine devices (IUDs), progestogen-releasing intrauterine system and injectable and implantable contraceptives-are safe and effective contraceptive options (unintended pregnancy rates with typical versus perfect use: 0.05-3.0 versus 0.05-0.6%) that are appropriate for a wide range of women seeking to limit or space childbearing. Despite their safety and efficacy records, these methods remain underutilized; injectable and implantable methods are used by an estimated 3.4% and intrauterine methods by 15.5% of women worldwide. LARC methods require no daily or coital adherence and avoid the adverse events and health risks of estrogen-containing contraceptives. The copper IUD and progestin-only injections and implants have been shown to be more cost-effective than more commonly used methods, such as condoms and the pill (5-year savings: $13,373-$14,122, LARC; $12,239, condoms; $12,879, pill). Women who are considering use of LARC methods should receive comprehensive contraceptive counseling, as women who receive counseling before use demonstrate higher rates of after-use method satisfaction, continuation and acceptance than those who do not.

The cost-effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraceptive methods in the UK: analysis based on a decision-analytic model developed for a National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) clinical practice guideline

Long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods are highly effective in preventing unintended pregnancies. However, their uptake is low in much of the developed world. This study aimed at assessing the cost-effectiveness of LARC methods from the British National Health Service (NHS) perspective. A decision-analytic model was constructed to estimate the relative cost-effectiveness of the copper intrauterine device (IUD), the levonorgestrel intrauterine system (LNG-IUS), the etonogestrel subdermal implant and the depot medroxyprogesterone acetate injection (DMPA). Comparisons with the combined oral contraceptive pill (COC) and female sterilization were also performed. Effectiveness data were derived from a systematic literature review. Costs were based on UK national sources and expert opinion. LARC methods dominated COC (i.e. they were more effective and less costly). Female sterilization dominated LARC methods beyond 5 years of contraceptive protection. DMPA and LNG-IUS were the least cost-effective LARC methods. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of implant (most effective LARC method) versus IUD (cheapest LARC method) was pound13 206 per unintended pregnancy averted for 1 year of use and decreased until implant dominated IUD in 15 years. Discontinuation was a key determinant of the cost-effectiveness of LARC methods. LARC methods are cost-effective from the British NHS perspective. Practices improving user satisfaction and continuation of LARC method use should be identified and promoted.