Use Of Genetic Information Research Articles

Contemporary Methods and Novel Approaches in the Identification and Quantification of Foodborne Pathogens

Foodborne pathogens are a continuous problem attracting the attention of public health institutions, microbiologists and food producers globally. The scientific community has therefore been focused for years on finding “new” and “better” methods, all in an effort to detect foodborne pathogens in the timeliest manner possible. It should be emphasized that the development of molecular genetics – the use of genetic information of biological macromolecules in routine testing in particular – has led to a revolutionary turn in biological science research. Almost all procedures detect different bacterial genetic footprint or biomarkers, which makes bacterial isolation unnecessary. However, these recent studies of “fast microbiological methods”, which require only a fewhours, rather than a few days, have not supplanted the classic way of microbiological food testing, i.e. the classic microbiological methods and the gold standard. The new methods are therefore faced with high requirements such as great detection limits, speed of analysis, relatively low costs and high sensitivity to identify various foodborne pathogens. Some of them provide the possibility of monitoring the pathogens, which is an important part of establishing a pathogen control network in the agri-food production chain at the international level. In this comprehensive literature review the authors present and review identification and quantification methodswith emphasis on the most important EU foodborne pathogens (Salmonella, Campylobacter, Escherichiacoli – STEC, Yersinia and Listeria). Methods have been divided into two large groups – Contemporary methods (Immunoassays and Polymerase Chain Reaction) and Novel approach methods (Biosensors, Bacterial typing, and Omics), and assessed by their functionality, advantages and disadvantages.

Genetics of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: established and emerging implications for clinical practice.

Pathogenic variation in genes encoding proteins of the cardiac sarcomere is responsible for 30%-40% of cases of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The main clinical utility of genetic testing is to provide diagnostic confirmation and facilitation of family screening. It also assists in the detection of aetiologies, which require distinct monitoring and treatment approaches. Other clinical applications, including the use of genetic information to inform risk prediction models, have been limited by the challenge of establishing robust genotype-phenotype correlations with actionable consequences, but new data on the interaction between rare and common genetic variation, as well as the emergence of therapies targeting disease-specific pathogenic mechanisms, herald a new era for genetic testing in routine practice.

Legislation of the Russian Federation in the Field of Protection of Genomic and Genetic Information in the Framework of Medical Diagnostics

Objective: to formulate recommendations and proposals for improving legislation in the field of protection of genomic and genetic information, including those obtained as a result of medical diagnostics.Materials and methods. We analyzed 18 regulatory legal acts, including 4 international, 3 acts of foreign states, 11 domestic legislation and judicial practice in the area under study. In addition, scientific works on this topic were analyzed. In the course of the study, we used the formal-logical, dogmatic, comparative method and axiological approaches.Results. We formulated the concepts of genomic and genetic information and demonstrated differences between these concepts. We showed topical issues of information protection, identified problems in the field of legal regulation of relevant relations, formulated recommendations and proposals for improving legal regulation.Conclusion. Based on performed research results, we recommend: 1. To incorporate in the legislation of the Russian Federation the principle that would allow the use of genetic information for further research depending on certain cases using a criteria-based approach, when such use should meet important public interests, for example, contributes to developing methods for the treatment of serious and socially significant diseases. 2. Regulate relations in the field of obtaining consent for research of biological material for scientific purposes (for example, within the framework of the Federal Law "On Personal Data"). 3. To define in Federal Law No. 86-FZ of July 5, 1996 "On State Regulation in the Field of Genetic Engineering Activities" the cases that require ethical examination in order to comply with the principle of safety of clinical trials of gene diagnostic methods, as well as in other cases. 4. Medical organizations shall ensure compliance with the rules of professional ethics in terms of data confidentiality, carry out their depersonalization, notify patients in writing about compliance with such a regime and, as a result, provide guarantees for the protection of information about patients, as well as about their relatives.

ЧИ ПОТРІБНЕ УКРАЇНІ СПЕЦИФІЧНЕ РЕГУЛЮВАННЯ ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ГЕНЕТИЧНОЇ ІНФОРМАЦІЇ ДЛЯ ОЦІНКИ РИЗИКІВ У СТРАХУВАННІ?

Introduction. The article examines the specifics and role of genetic information for insurance risk assessment in the life insurance market in Ukraine. Problem Statement. The insurance market developments of different countries are increasingly characterized by the adoption of specific regulations regarding the features and conditions of use of genetic information. Therefore, the issue of regulating the rights and obligations of all participants in insurance relations regarding the use of such information of future owners of insurance policies for underwriting in insurance requires a comprehensive solution taking into account the interests of all parties. The purpose of the research is to evaluate the necessity of application of specific regulations on the insurance market, specifically in the field of using genetic data for insurance purposes. Methods. The sources of materials were scientific publications, analytical studies, as well as legislation in the field of regulation of the use of genetic information for the assessment of insurance risks. The research paper used the following empirical methods, such as analysis, synthesis, grouping, description, comparison, theoretical generalization. Results. The results show that currently some risks exist in Ukraine: firstly, the genetic discrimination, since most life insurance companies are interested in the genetic information of policyholders, and can request it from any third parties: therefore, there is a possibility of using it to assess insurance risk; secondly, an information asymmetry, which is a consequence of greater awareness of insurance companies about the insurance risks than that of the policyholders. After all, policyholders may not inform the insurance company about all the genetic data (for example, the results of genetic studies) that describe their genetic predisposition to future changes in health. Conclusions. This study substantiated factors which confirm the relevance of introducing legislative regulation regarding the use of genetic information (including the results of genetic analyzes) for underwriting in insurance.

A Review on Bridging Molecular Biology and Ecological Dynamics through Integrative Approaches in Zoology

The integration of molecular biology with ecological dynamics has emerged as a transformative approach in zoology, enhancing our understanding of biodiversity, ecosystem health, and the adaptive responses of species to environmental changes. This review synthesizes key developments and methodological innovations at the intersection of molecular biology and ecological dynamics, highlighting the application of DNA barcoding, environmental DNA (eDNA) analyses, molecular phylogenetics, and advanced computational models in elucidating complex biological interactions and evolutionary patterns. Significant advancements include the use of high-throughput sequencing technologies and CRISPR-Cas systems that have expanded our ability to explore genetic diversity and manipulate genetic material for conservation purposes. The review discusses the predictive capabilities of integrative models that combine genetic with ecological data, offering insights into species resilience and ecosystem stability under varying environmental scenarios. Challenges in data integration, such as issues of scale, complexity, and the necessity for interdisciplinary cooperation, are critically examined. Technical limitations related to data management and ethical considerations in the use of genetic information are also explored. Looking forward, the review identifies emerging technologies and their potential impacts on ecological and conservation biology, emphasizing the need for policies that support sustainable management and conservation strategies. This review underscores the profound impact of integrating molecular biology with ecological dynamics, which not only enhances our scientific understanding but also provides practical frameworks for addressing global environmental challenges.

Application of Genetic Information to Cochlear Implantation in Clinical Practice.

Cochlear implantation is currently the treatment of choice for children with severe-to-profound sensorineural hearing impairment (SNHI). However, the outcomes with cochlear implant (CI) vary significantly among recipients. Genetic diagnosis offers direct clues regarding the pathogenesis of SNHI, which facilitates the development of personalized medicine for potential candidates for CI. In this article, I present a comprehensive overview of the usefulness of genetic information in clinical decision-making for CI. Genetically confirmed diagnosis enables clinicians to: 1) monitor the evolution of SNHI and determine the optimal surgical timing, 2) predict the potential benefits of CI in patients with identified genetic etiology, and 3) select CI devices/electrodes tailored to patients with specific genetic mutations.

Research biobank participants attitudes towards genetic exceptionalism and health record confidentiality.

Understanding attitudes towards genetic exceptionalism and confidentiality is important in guiding policies regarding special protections for genetic/genomic information stored in electronic health records (EHR). The goals of this study were to determine biobank participants' attitudes towards genetic exceptionalism and confidentiality and whether those attitudes are related to their preference for return of genetic results. An online questionnaire was distributed to patients with an EHR and email address who had previously enrolled in the BioMe Biobank program. Most participants responded with similar levels of concern in scenarios involving the use of genetic information and other types of health information, suggesting that participants want similar protections for genetic data as other types of sensitive health information, particularly mental health and family history records. Of the 829 respondents, the majority had genetic exceptionalist views when directly asked, even though their concerns about confidentiality were similar for their genetic information and other health information. There were no differences in genetic exceptionalist views between those who had a documented preference to have genetic results returned and those who did not. Notably, for many participants, their recall of preference did not align with their documented preference. The majority of biobank participants were most anxious about the loss of confidentiality for genetic, mental health, and family history information, indicating that certain types of health information are considered more "sensitive" than others. These findings suggest the importance of assuring people participating in biobank research that the confidentiality of their "sensitive" health information is secured.

Gene-Centric Laws in the Postgenomic Era: The Need for Protection of Epigenetic Information

In recent decades, special attention has been given to the privacy and discrimination risks associated with genetic information. Federal, state, and international laws all contain specific protections for the use of genetic information in a variety of contexts, including insurance and employment. Yet the very considerations motivating special protections for genetic information extend beyond mere genetics. Epigenetics involves the study of heritable changes in gene function that do not involve changes in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic data shares a number of normative similarities and policy concerns with genetic data, and in some ways, presents an even greater privacy and nondiscrimination risk than genetic data. However, epigenetic information remains unprotected by existing genetic privacy and nondiscrimination laws, which are based on an outdated conception of health and disease, focused narrowly on genes and genetic information. This Note argues that epigenetic information warrants the same protections as genetic information and calls for an amendment of existing genetic privacy and nondiscrimination laws to broaden the definitions of the data at stake to encompass epigenetic and other postgenomic information.

The dangerous use of genetic information

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to inform or alert readers to the extensive use and ready availability of genetic information that poses varying degrees of social and legal danger. The eugenics movement of the 1920s and the general acceptance of genetic essentialism provide context for considering contemporary examples of the problem.Design/methodology/approachThis paper takes an argumentative approach, supporting proposals with ideas from historical and current research literature.FindingsThe limits of data protection, extensive use of direct-to-consumer genetic testing and use of genetic information in white nationalist circles portend a resurgence of eugenic beliefs from a century ago.Social implicationsResearch-based recommendations may help to avoid extreme consequences by encouraging people to make informed decisions about the use of genetic information.Originality/valueThe paper counterposes contemporary understanding of genetic testing and data accessibility with the much older ideology of eugenics, leading to concerns about how white nationalists might further their aims with 21st century technology.

Growth in perceived clinical genetics competency among primary care providers participating in genomic population health screening.

Limited competency in genetics among primary care providers (PCPs) is a barrier to use of genetic information in healthcare. Formal genetics lessons require time and interest, and knowledge wanes. We hypothesized another path to competency: participation in our PCP-centered adult clinical genomic population health screening program. We asked participating Family Medicine PCPs about their perceptions of growth in their genetics competency. An anonymous, voluntary, cross-sectional survey was developed and distributed to PCPs offering the screening. Results were compiled after 3weeks. PCPs rated several program resources for value and provided open-ended feedback. Seventy-five percent of respondents agreed that genetics is important to their practice. Eighty-seven percent felt that their knowledge of clinical genetics topics had grown. Eighty-seven percent perceived increased confidence in offering genetic testing and in discussing common genetic results with patients. Respondents gained appreciation for the scope of clinical utility that genetic information offers patients. Each education resource rated at least 3.75 out of 5 for contributing to genetics knowledge. The case-specific Genomic Medicine Action Plan rated highest in educational value, 4.5 out of 5. Most responding PCPs offering genomic population health screening perceived growth in their genetic competency and found hands-on, case-based resources most useful.

Enhancing the dung beetle iDNA tool for mammalian biodiversity monitoring and ecological studies

AbstractMany species of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) are coprophages and possess trophic connections with mammalian dung. Recent studies have shown that the use of genetic information from dung beetle guts (invertebrate‐derived DNA or iDNA) allows for the detection of mammals in a given habitat without intensively surveying the area. However, these studies used live or freshly killed beetles instead of preserved specimens. Here, we assessed the feasibility of extracting and sequencing iDNA from dung beetles that were collected using conventional baited pitfall traps with a mixture of propylene glycol and ethanol. We extracted iDNA from the guts of 18 dung beetles, comprising three species and three functional groups, collected from a seasonal tropical forest in Xishuangbanna, China. Eight mammalian species were detected, including rare species not previously recorded at the same location. Among the three functional groups, paracoprids (tunnelers) yielded the highest number of mammal species. Our study shows that iDNA can be successfully sequenced from preserved specimens, provided they are stored under appropriate conditions. The proposed technique offers a viable alternative to traditional cafeteria experiments for understanding dung beetle‐mammal interactions and can serve as a valuable complementary approach to current mammal survey techniques.

A pragmatic approach to genetic testing in elite sport – are we there yet? Comment on McAuley et al.

The use of genetic testing within sport is a hotly debated topic, with concerns around utility, validity, and the ethical use of any collected data. Whilst the general scientific consensus is that genetic testing has no utility within sport, research suggests around 10% of athletes have undertaken a genetic test—and more would be willing to do so. This highlights the need for a pragmatic approach to the use—or otherwise—of genetic testing in sport, with a recent article seeking to develop a framework for its use. However, there are still many unanswered and unexplored aspects around the use of genetic information in elite sport, including whether it is truly necessary and whether athletes can be adequately protected from misuse of their genetic data.

Contribution of genetic analyses to semi‐natural grassland biodiversity conservation in Japan

AbstractSemi‐natural grasslands maintained by moderate anthropogenic disturbance have been rapidly declining worldwide in recent decades, resulting in the progressive degradation of biodiversity therein. Similarly, in Japan, many semi‐natural grassland organisms are threatened with extinction owing to the decline of semi‐natural grasslands, and their conservation and management has attracted considerable attention. Although ecological studies using genetic information are expected to contribute to the conservation of semi‐natural grassland organisms, no reviews have been conducted on the potential roles of these studies in grassland conservation in Japan. Here, we review the current trends in conservation‐ecological study on Japanese semi‐natural grassland organisms using genetic information by grouping into five categories: (1) monitoring of genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure, (2) exploration of the genetic consequences of management practices, (3) prevention of genetic disturbance, (4) elucidation of natural history traits, and (5) estimation of the origin and demography. Furthermore, the applicability of studies using high‐throughput sequencing, which has been rapidly progressing in recent years, is highlighted. This review provides the methods and perspectives on the use of genetic information to conserve biodiversity in semi‐natural grasslands.

Human Genetics Society of Australasia Position Statement: Genetic Testing and Personal Insurance Products in Australia.

The expansion of genetic and genomic testing in clinical practice and research, and the growing market for direct-to-consumer genomic testing has led to increased awareness about the impact of this form of testing on insurance. Genetic or genomic information can be requested by providers of mutually rated insurance products, who may then use it when setting premiums or determining eligibility for cover under a particular product. Australian insurers are subject to relevant legislation and an industry led standard that was updated in 2019 to introduce a moratorium on the use of genetic test results in life insurance underwriting for policies <AU$500K. The Human Genetics Society of Australasia has updated its position statement on genetic testing and life insurance to account for these changes and to increase the scope of the statement to include a wider range of personally-rated insurance products, such as life, critical care, and income protection products. Recommendations include that: providers of professional education involving genetics should include ethical, legal, and social aspects of insurance discrimination in their curricula; the Australian Government take a more active role in regulating use of genetic information in personal insurance; that information obtained in the course of a research project be excluded; insurers seek expert advice when making underwriting decisions regarding genetic testing; and engagement between the insurance industry, regulators, and the genetics profession be improved.

Medical ethics in genomic medicine

Recently, utilization of genetic data has become routine in medicine. It is important to consider the use of genetic information in different situations based on the principles of medical ethics. Furthermore, it is necessary to understand the features of genetic information and to adhere to various guidelines in research and clinical practices. In genomic medicine, which will become the mainstream of medicine using comprehensive genetic information, it will be crucial to fully comprehend the suitable handling of secondary results, and to prioritize benefits to the patients. Moreover, developing a system that incorporates appropriate legislation to ensure nondiscrimination of patients on the basis of their genetic information and to provide a forum for ethical issues that will arise in the future is essential.

The Utilization and Limitation of Genetic Information in Insurance: Improvement Plan of China’s“Genetic Non-discrimination Act”

According to current Chinese law, insurance companies cannot use genetic information for medical, disease, disability, care and medical accident insurance. Nevertheless, this approach has not effectively solved the problem of “genetic discrimination” in China. Genetic information plays a vital role in insurance. The theory that genetic information can be used in insurance is based on risk classification and price equilibrium principle. Adverse selection can be avoided by dividing genetic information into different risk classes. This is an inevitable requirement of the insurer's right to know. For the consideration of social and public interests, commercial insurance should undertake a reasonable social relief function, but it is necessary to clarify the limitations of the social relief function of commercial insurance, and commercial insurance and social insurance cannot be equated. In terms of the characteristics of genetic information itself, there is no substantial difference between it and general medical information. Insurance covers uncertain risks, and with the progress of technology, the accuracy of genetic testing has also been improved. Therefore, theoretically speaking, it is not necessary to completely prohibit insurers from using genetic information in the insurance field. Therefore, in the future, China's legislation on genetic discrimination should be changed from completely prohibiting the use of genetic information by insurers to conditionally restricting the use of genetic information by insurers. First of all, the way to obtain genetic information by the insurer should be clarified, and the insurer should be prohibited from forcing the insured to carry out predictive genetic testing. The insurance applicant only must inform the specific genetic testing results. Secondly, it is necessary to set conditions for the insurer to use genetic information. The insurer can only use genetic information in personal insurance that meets a certain amount of money, and the use of genetic information must meet legal procedures and obtain the consent of the insured. In addition, it is also necessary to strengthen the regulation of the gene testing industry, formulate strict market access rules, and establish a gene consultant system to make up for the inferior position of the insured in the profession. Finally, improve the rescue of the insured, let professionals participate in the settlement of disputes, and increase the severity of punishment for the illegal use of genetic information by insurance companies.

Legal Aspects of Using the Results of Genetic Testing to Prove Ethnicity in the Law Enforcement Practice of the State of Israel

This article discusses the legal aspects of applying the results of genetic testing for the purposes of determining ethnicity. Remarkable in this context is the experience of the State of Israel, where the results of genetic testing are legally used to identify potential immigrants as persons with or without Jewish origin. Apparently, this direction of development of legal regulation contributes to a rethinking of the provision of national legislation regarding the definition of Jewish origin, which was not previously tied to the results of DNA testing. The article analyzes the legal context for identifying potential immigrants as Jews, as well as the right to immigrate in the State of Israel and provides an overview of relevant legal practice. In conclusion, the author examines the key aspects of the influence of law enforcement practice in the field of the use of genetic information on the development of national legislation in this area.

Problems of legal regulation of the protection of genetic information obtained by methods of preimplantation and prenatal genetic diagnosis, In the Russian Federation

In the context of the active development of the areas defined by the Concept of Predictive, Preventive and Personalized Medicine, genodiagnostics, applied at the stage of family planning, is of particular importance. The introduction of preimplantation and prenatal genodiagnostics poses not only ethical but also legal problems. Of particular importance are the problems of protecting genetic information obtained using these methods from unauthorized use, which actualizes the need to improve the current regulatory framework for determining and specifying the conditions for carrying out such genodiagnostics. Purpose: to identify actual legal problems arising from the use of genetic information obtained by methods of preimplantation and prenatal genetic diagnosis, to determine the best ways of their solution as well as the main directions of further technological development and improvement of national legislation in the field of genetic diagnosis. Methods: the authors apply empirical methods of comparison, description, interpretation; theoretical methods of formal and dialectical logic; specific scientific methods: legal-dogmatic and interpretation of legal norms. Results: the analysis of the current legislation regulating preimplantation and prenatal genetic diagnosis in the Russian Federation reveals a number of pressing legal problems arising from the use of genetic information obtained in diagnostics. It is established that the current legislation does not take into account the specifics of genetic information and cannot provide effective protection against its illegal use in genetic diagnostics. General directions of improving national legislation in order to overcome problems related to the observance of human rights in the use of methods of preimplantation and prenatal genetic diagnostics are outlined.

Maturing pharmacogenomic factors deliver improvements and cost efficiencies.

An ever-expanding annotation of the human genome sequence continues to promise a new era of precision medicine. Advances in knowledge management and the ability to leverage genetic information to make clinically relevant, predictive, diagnostic, and targeted therapeutic choices offer the ability to improve patient outcomes and reduce the overall cost of healthcare. However, numerous barriers have resulted in a modest start to the clinical use of genetics at scale. Examples of successful deployments include oncologic disease treatment with targeted prescribing; however, even in these cases, genome-informed decision-making has yet to achieve standard of care in most major healthcare systems. In the last two decades, advances in genetic testing, therapeutic coverage, and clinical decision support have resulted in early-stage adoption of pharmacogenomics - the use of genetic information to routinely determine the safety and efficacy profile of specific medications for individuals. Here, through their complicated histories, we review the current state of pharmacogenomic testing technologies, the information tools that can unlock clinical utility, and value-driving implementation strategies that represent the future of pharmacogenomics-enabled healthcare decision-making. We conclude with real-world economic and clinical outcomes from a full-scale deployment and ultimately provide insight into potential tipping points for global adoption, including recent lessons from the rapid scale-up of high-volume test delivery during the global SARS-CoV2 epidemic.

Genomic Privacy: Advocating for the Convergence of Legal and Technical Solutions

Genomic Privacy:Advocating for the Convergence of Legal and Technical Solutions Can Kockan (bio), Dov Greenbaum (bio), Danielle Lee (bio), and Mark Gerstein (bio) The economy of DNA: consumer genomics and its risks Genomic data collection and analysis is an incredibly valuable sector within the information economy, yet genomic information has never been more pervasive nor publicly accessible. Just this past spring, the National Institutes of Health's "All of Us" program announced that it would make nearly one hundred thousand unique and diverse whole genome sequences available for researchers, and several other public efforts have similarly set out to collect and disseminate enormous amounts of genomic data for research.1 Beyond such institutions looking to innocuously advance their research and even beyond amateur genomic sleuths combing through our genetic information to try and crack unsolved crimes,2 there also exists reason to be concerned about matters relating to genetic privacy on the corporate side. [End Page 246] Companies such as MyHeritage and Ancestry. com collect client DNA in various degrees of quantity and quality, at times even using this data for commercial purposes and selling clients' genomic information to drug companies for hundreds of millions of dollars.3 In addition to the growing size of both public and private DNA databases, these databases have also grown increasingly more revealing as research continues to uncover additional correlations between genes and disease and hereditary conditions. For example, identical twins share 100 percent of their DNA, parents and siblings share up to 61 percent of their DNA, and even distant third cousins share up to 2.2 percent of their DNA.4 Thus, if even one of these individuals chooses to disclose their genomic information, they are in effect disclosing not only theirs but also much of the genomes of their close relatives. One study showed how the genetic information of the majority of Americans of European ancestry can be identified through their distant relatives' DNA that already exists in various public and private current databases.5 The result of such data is an ever-expanding genomic panopticon, as predicted by the late Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia.6 Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the genomic information consumed and produced around the world has only further contributed to expanding the realm of genomic data available to us. Genetic tests have become especially de rigueur when traversing borders, and it was even reported recently that various heads of state refused PCR testing when meeting the Russian president Putin out of fear that Russian intelligence might abuse and misuse the resulting genetic information.7 Yet, this fear is not limited to politicians, celebrities, or sports personalities whose genetic information could contain exploitable knowledge.8 In fact, given all the sunk costs for the infrastructure of pandemic genetic testing, some countries will likely continue to find excuses to collect and examine the DNA of visitors for a host of potentially actionable genetic data, including controversial correlations like propensity to violence or depression.9 As such, now would be the best time to enhance genetic data protection and privacy laws before we become too complacent with giving away our genes at the border, or anywhere else. A brief history of the technical and legal solutions for genomic privacy U.S. legislators have long assumed the primary role of protecting our genetic data, from instituting federal regulations like the Federal Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) to state laws including those that target the limited use of genetic information in areas of health insurance, employment, and even direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies like 23andMe.10 However, laws are slow to change, and regulations are slow to implement. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) is exemplary of slowness in responding to outdated regulations. The 1996 law outlines limitations on the use of protected health information (PHI). Under HIPAA's Privacy Rule, individually identifiable health information is protected. Deidentified information is exempt from this rule, as is other data deemed unidentifiable.11 This definition is anachronistic in our world of big data, and even heretofore perceived benign data has long been shown to be as revealing as PHI.12 Practically speaking, these regulations are also...