Use Of Electric Shock Research Articles

Avoidance of hot air blast in Rattus norvegicus.

The hegemonic use of electric shock as an aversive stimulus limits what is known about the generality of avoidance behavior and related phenomena. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of using the hot air blast (HAB) instead of electric shock as an aversive stimulus in avoidance conditioning. Four male Wistar rats were exposed to a discrete-trial procedure. In the first phase, the emission of a lever-press response during a trial was positively reinforced. In the second phase, the same contingency was employed, but an escapable HAB was presented at the end of a trial when no response was emitted. In the third phase, positive reinforcement was suspended and a discrete-trial avoidance procedure was employed. In the fourth phase, HAB presentation was completely suspended. As a result, all subjects learned the avoidance response and showed a marked reduction in its frequency during HAB suspension. These results offer evidence indicating that avoidance behavior is controlled by the HAB, thereby advancing the understanding of the generality of this stimulus as being aversive.

The effect of the electric shock on embryonic development and neurophysiological traits in the chick’s embryo

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of stimulating the embryo during the dormancy in the incubation period. 450 eggs (Ross 308) were allocated in four treatments each three replicates. The treatments were as follow: T1 control (without shock), T2 Shocked (40) Millivolts (mV), T3 Shocked (50) (mV), T4 Shocked (75) (mV). A different voltage device was used to shock the egg, after marking the eggs with a line of iron filings to ensure electrical conductivity, eggs were shocked at different times three times a day. The results show a significant increase (p<0.01) in embryonic development for embryo weight, chick body weight, Hatchability, and embryo Index (EI) for T2, T3, and especially T4. A significant increase (p<0.01) in neurophysiological traits of neurons, brain weight, and Brain Index (BI) for T2, T3, and especially T4. In concluding the use of electric shock in the embryonic period will developing of the embryo and neurophysiological traits.

First Report on Successful Triploidy Induction in Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) Using Electroporation

This study investigated the use of electric-shock in inducing triploidy in African catfish Clarias gariepinus. To achieve this, three voltages (9, 12, 21 V) were applied for different durations (3, 5, 10 min). The shock was initiated approximately three minutes after fertilization followed by incubation in ambient temperature. After incubation, hatchability and survival rates were determined while ploidy status of the treatment fishes was confirmed in one-month-old fingerlings using the exclusive triploid range of the erythrocyte major axis previously reported for the same species (11.9–14.9 μm) and by cytogenetic analysis of the chromosome. The results showed triploidy were achieved in 10 to 85% of the treatment groups. A consistent trend of decrease in hatchability and an increase in triploidy rate was observed with increased electroporation voltages and shock durations. The mean erythrocyte major axis length of triploid progenies (3n = 84) was observed to be between 11.3–14.6 μm and was higher than the range of 7.0–10.5 μm recorded for diploid progenies (2n = 56). It was concluded that electric shock can be used to induce triploidy in African catfish C. gariepinus.

Cannabinoid modulation of zebrafish fear learning and its functional analysis investigated by c-Fos expression

It has been shown that zebrafish fear learning proceeds in the same way as reported for rodents. However, in zebrafish fear learning it is possible to substitute the use of electric shocks as unconditioned stimulus and utilize the inborn fear responses to the alarm substance Schreckstoff, instead. The skin extract Schreckstoff elicits typical fear reactions such as preferred bottom dwelling, swimming in a tighter shoal, erratic movements and freezing. This natural fear behavior can be transferred from Schreckstoff to any other sensory stimulus by associative conditioning (fear learning). We presented Schreckstoff simultaneously with a red light stimulus and tested the effectiveness of fear learning during memory retrieval. The two brain regions known to be relevant for learning in zebrafish are the medial and the lateral pallium of the dorsal telencephalon, both containing rich expressions of the endocannabinoid receptor CB1. To test the influence of the zebrafish endocannabinoid system on fear acquisition learning, an experimental group of ten fish was pretreated with the CB1 receptor agonist THC (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol; 100nM for 1h). We found that CB1 activation significantly inhibited acquisition of fear learning, possibly by impairing stimulus encoding processes in pallial areas. This was supported by analyzes of c-Fos expression in the brains of experimental animals. Schreckstoff exposure during fear acquisition learning and memory retrieval during red light presentation increased the number of labelled cells in pallial structures, but in no other brain region investigated (e.g. striatum, thalamus, and habenula). THC administration before fear conditioning significantly decreased c-Fos expression in these structures to a level similar to the control group without Schreckstoff experience, suggesting that Schreckstoff induced fear learning requires brain circuits restricted mainly to pallial regions of the dorsal telencephalon.

Human Rights, Ethics, and the Protection of Intravenous Drug Users Are Much Improved in China

Human Rights, Ethics, and the Protection of Intravenous Drug Users Are Much Improved in China

Cardioversion: past, present, and future.

Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication. — —Leonardo da Vinci Recent years have seen rapid proliferation of ablative and antiarrhythmic therapies for treating various ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias. Yet cardioversion and defibrillation remain the main modalities to restore normal sinus rhythm. Their simplicity, reliability, safety, and, most important, their efficacy in promptly restoring normal sinus rhythm are unmatched in our current treatment armamentarium. ### The Early Work Contemporary cardiology has been significantly affected by the ready availability of this simple method for terminating atrial and ventricular tachyarrhythmias. However, fascination with electricity and its use in biological systems is hardly contemporary. The first capacitor that was able to store electric energy in a glass container was discovered in 1745. It was named the Leyden jar, and its use was shortly thereafter tested in the electrocution of small animals. There is a large body of literature in Italy, France, and England on biological and medical application of electricity dating from the 17th and 18th centuries. Although physicians across Europe started using electricity as an experimental treatment, the earliest recorded scientific approach with the use of electric shocks was that of Peter Abildgaard in 1775.1 He systematically shocked hens, delivering electric charges in different parts of their body. Electric stimuli applied anywhere across the body of the hen, particularly in the head, could render the animal lifeless, but subsequent shocks delivered to the chest could revive the heart. Abildgaard was only one of the several scientists who studied the effects of electricity on animals. Some reported similar findings, and others could not reproduce his results. However, Luigi Galvani in 1781 first clearly described the link between electricity and its presence in biological systems.2 He was the first to use the term animal electricity , coined after his famous experiments in which he caused the legs of …

Salpingectomy for Ruptured Ectopic Pregnancy

Not much more than a century ago, a ruptured ectopic pregnancy was a death sentence. In 1876, John Parry wrote in his book on this subject: 'Here is a wife in the most useful period of her existence, which good authorities have said is never cured; and for which, even in this age when science and art boast of such high attainments, no remedy, either medical or surgical, has been tried with a single success'. When we read that eminent authorities were advising the use of electric shocks, injection of narcotics into the sac and copious and frequent bleeding, one is hardly suprised. Parry himself suggested that the only remedy would be to open the abdomen and either tie the bleeding vessels or remove the sac entirely.

Italian psychiatry in an international context: Ugo Cerletti and the case of electroshock.

Taking as its starting point the Italian psychiatric context between the end of the nineteenth century and the first years of the twentieth century, this essay analyses Italian psychiatry's steps towards a new theoretical and therapeutical framework. Focusing on Ugo Cerletti's work on the electric shock, this paper shows how this Italian psychiatric renewal occurred at the same time as a process of internationalization of psychiatric knowledge, practice and problems. Moving from Europe to America, the author describes Cerletti's position towards the wide spread of a merely empirical and technical use of electric shock, and reconstructs an international debate on the divorce of electric shock from research.

Air and shock two-way shuttlebox avoidance in C57BL/6J and 129X1/SvJ mice

Despite multiple advantages of the use of electric shock as an aversive stimulus, reasons exist for considering alternative aversive stimuli. In the present study, we examined and compared the acquisition of two-way shuttlebox avoidance with 275.8-kPa (40-psi) pulsed air and continuous 0.4-mA shock in two strains of mice commonly employed in targeted gene mutation research, C57BL/6J and 129X1/SvJ. Each trial consisted of a 5-s warning stimulus (WS, light) during which shuttling to the other side cancelled delivery of the aversive stimulus. Once initiated, the aversive stimulus remained active for 20 s or until an escape response occurred. For C57BL/6J mice, air and shock were equally and highly effective aversive stimuli. In contrast, air was less effective than shock for 129X1/SvJ mice. C57BL/6J mice outperformed 129X1/SvJ mice for both stimulus types. For 129X1/SvJ mice, longer escape latencies were observed initially for air, suggesting that shock is more effective. However, these differences in latency dissipated within the first seven sessions. Nevertheless, by the end of the 17-day study, asymptotic levels of avoidance proficiency were substantially lower for air than for shock in 129X1/SvJ mice. These results indicate that air is a suitable substitute for shock as an aversive stimulus in shuttlebox active avoidance; however, the relative efficacies of these aversive stimuli appear to depend upon the strain chosen for study.

Avoidance learning in autoimmune mice

Previous studies have shown that autoimmune mice perform very poorly on active avoidance learning tasks. In the current studies, mice with lupus-like systemic autoimmunity were able to learn active, as well as passive, avoidance protocols with shock as reinforcement. Therefore, the behavioral deficits seen in active avoidance tasks are not a consequence of the use of electric shock. Rather, the current findings suggest that the inability of autoimmune mice to learn shock motivated responding is due to multiple performance factors, including shock level and properties of the testing apparatus.

Can Aggression in Dogs Be Elicited Through the Use of Electronic Pet Containment Systems?

Five cases are described that involve severe attacks on humans by dogs who were being trained or maintained on an electronic pet containment system. The system is designed to boundary train a dog through the use of electric shock in an escape-avoidance conditioning paradigm. Data were collected from legal documents filed in personal injury lawsuits. Analysis of the findings show that all dogs lacked a marked history of aggressive responding, all were adult males, and most were reproductively intact. All attacks happened near the boundary of the property. In every case, the system was operational at the time of attack. Moreover, in most cases, the dog received shock. Findings lend themselves to possible interpretation in terms of unconditioned aggression as a result of a dog having received electronic shock and avoidance-motivated aggression mediated through fear reduction toward human stimuli.

Genetic Differences in Response to Novelty and Spatial Memory Using a Two-Trial Recognition Task in Mice

A two-trial memory task, based on a free-choice exploration paradigm in a Y-maze, was previously developed to study recognition processes in Sprague-Dawley rats. Because this paradigm avoids the use of electric shock or deprivation that may have nonspecific effects and does not require learning of a rule, it may be particularly useful for studying memory in mice. Four inbred strains (Balb/cByJ, DBA/2J, C57BL/6J, and SJL/J), an F1 hybrid (C57BL/6 × SJL/J), and one outbred strain (CD1) were used to validate this task in mice and to characterize a strain distribution in response to novelty and working memory. Exploration was measured with a short (2 min) intertrial interval (ITI) between acquisition and retrieval, while memory was examined with longer intervals (30 min, 1 h, and 2 h). A study of the time course of the response to novelty revealed varying degrees of preference and/or habituation to novelty among the different strains, with CD1 exhibiting a very high response to novelty and others showing lower (C57 × SJL hybrids) to complete absence (SJL) of exploration of novelty. Memory span, assessed with increasing ITIs, varied widely among strains from 30 min (C57 × SJL hybrids) to at least 2 h (C57 and BALB). Such demonstrated sensitivity to a wide range of behavioral phenotypes supports the use of this spatial memory task as an effective tool for the study of genetic influences on the response to novelty and recognition processes in mice.

Mammal repellents: options and considerations for development

Author(s): Mason, J. Russell | Abstract: Repellents include chemical substances, visual displays, and sonic and ultrasonic deterrent systems. The use of electric shock also can be considered as a repellent category. Each of these categories is discussed, together with their respective utilities, constraints on their usefulness, and possibilities for future development. Economic considerations that may impede or expedite the development of new strategies are presented. Repellent effectiveness depends upon a complex of variables, including the palatability of protected and alternative foods, weather conditions, and the number of animals causing problems. Invariably, repellents are most useful when used as components of integrated pest management strategies.

Extension of a New Two-Trial Memory Task in the Rat: Influence of Environmental Context on Recognition Processes

A two-trial memory task, based on place or object exploration in a Y-maze, was developed to study recognition processes in young and aged Sprague–Dawley rats (Dellu et al., 1992). This paradigm avoids the use of electric shocks or deprivations that may have nonspecific effects, and the task does not require learning of a rule, i.e., involves essentially working memory. A number of behavioral parameters in several animals could be recorded automatically, thus allowing a detailed analysis of behavior and a simultaneous testing of several animals. We extended this task in order to evaluate the role of contextual information in recognition memory. When the contextual environment during acquisition and retrieval trials was unchanged, place recognition remained intact despite interpolated explorations. When the contextual environment during acquisition and retrieval trials was changed, object recognition was impaired. It was clearly shown that the correct choice between two discrete cues (e.g., small objects) is conditional on more diffuse environmental cues. Thus, it can be hypothesized that at least two kinds of recognition processes can be assessed in animals: an automatic process, based on a discrimination between familiarity and novelty, and a second process, more cognitively based and more effortful. In conclusion, the two-trial task in the Y-maze is sensitive, specific, and fast. It allows the study of both spatial and nonspatial memory, allows the study of different levels (automatic vs controlled) of cognitive processes and their neuroanatomical substrates, and may be profitably employed in aging studies and neuropharmacological research in general.

A two-trial memory task with automated recording: study in young and aged rats

A two-trial recognition task, based on place or object exploration in a Y-maze, was developed to study memory in adult and aged rats. This paradigm avoids the use of electric shocks or deprivation that may have non-specific influences on the responses, and the task does not require learning of a rule. A number of behavioral parameters in several animals could be recorded automatically. These behavioral parameters were found to be differently influenced both by the type of recognition (place vs. object) and by the inter-trial interval (recognition retention time). Impaired recognition was also detected in 18-months-old rats. This recognition task which combines simplicity, sensitivity and high specificity may thus be a useful adjunct to our current battery of memory tasks.

The acceptability of electric shock programs.

Vignette methodology was used to assess factors associated with decisions regarding the acceptability of treatment programs involving Response Contingent Electric Shock. Ninety-four mental retardation professionals each reviewed unique vignettes that described a program involving the use of electric shock to consequate some form of behavior. They then were asked to rate three related acceptability dimensions with regard to the vignette. The use of Response Contingent Electric Shock was rated as more appropriate if the behavior was a serious behavior, occurred frequently, and had been unresponsive to less intrusive methods of therapy.

The Side Effects of Electric Shock Employed with Mentally Retarded Persons

Lichstein and Schreibman (1976) reviewed studies in which electric shock was used with autistic children and found that. contrary to popular expectation, the observed side effects of electric shock were of a positive nature. This paper surveys the use of electric shock with persons diagnosed as primarily mentally retarded and substantiates this finding. Positive side effects reported include response generalisation. increased sociability, and positive emotional behaviours. The few negative side effects reported were of short duration and appeared to be influenced by changes in social reinforcement contingencies rather than by the application of electric shock per se. Ethical considerations relating to physical danger and choice of target behaviour are discussed briefly.

Employing electric shock with autistic children. A review of the side effects.

The use of electric shock in a punishment paradigm has continued to be a highly controversial issue in the treatment of autistic children. While the experimental literature argues for the effectiveness of the procedure for reducing maladaptive behaviors, some clinicians and researchers have expressed fear of possible negative side effects. The reported side effects of contingent electric shock were reviewed in an attempt to evaluate the validity of these fears. The review indicated that the majority of reported side effects of shock were of a positive nature. These positive effects included response generalization, increases in social behavior, and positive emotional behavior. The few negative side effects reported included fear of the shock apparatus, negative emotional behavior, and increases in other maladaptive behavior. The implication of these findings for the use of the shock procedure are discussed in terms of correct usage of the shock, therapist reservations, and alternative procedures.

The relationship between mouse killing and intraspecific fighting in the albino rat

Thirty albino rats were tested for mouse killing and then tested for intraspecific aggression in a paradigm that generates fighting without the use of electric shock. Mouse killers showed significantly more attacks and lateral blocks than did nonkillers; they also inflicted more wounds on their opponents. The two groups did not significantly differ on other often used measures of social dominance; they also did not differ in the display of stereotypic defensive behavior. The experience of fighting or of cyclic food deprivation did not induce killing in the nonkillers. The results suggest that there may be some relationship between mouse killing and intraspecific fighting.

Presidential address, 1973. Physical, physiological, and psychological factors that affect pain reaction to electric shock.

ABSTRACTThis paper reviews a number of years of comprehensive research in the use of electric shock as a pain stimulus in the psychophysiology laboratory. The development of a standard stimulation technique is described. Studies involving the use of this procedure to investigate psychological, physiological, and clinical factors that affect the evaluation of pain are discussed. Cultural and behavioral influences on pain tolerance are investigated and physiological response measures tested. Possible clinical applications are studied, and special consideration is given to the psychophysical evaluation of the sensory and connotative components of the pain experience.