Use Of Cowpea Research Articles

Economic Analysis of Integrated Striga Management for Striga control as Influenced by Trap Crops and Inorganic Fertilizer Application in Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] at Fedis District, Eastern Ethiopia

Strigais problematic weed causing difficulty in cultivation of sorghum in areas of eastern hararghe where low and erratic rainfall is prevalent and soils are characterized by poor fertility. Knowing these different options of management has been tried however; its cost benefit has never been studied. Therefore, to assess its economic analysis and effect of integrated Striga management on Striga incidence, a field experiment was conducted during the cropping season of 2015 on heavily Striga-infested field in Fedis District, Boko site to determine the effect of trap crops (cowpea, soybean, desmodium, control) and N fertilizer rates (0, 46, 92 and 138 kg N ha-1) on management of Striga incidence and its economic analysis. The experiment was laid out in a factorial arrangement in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Trap crops were uprooted at maximum above ground fresh biomass. The results indicated significant (P<0.05) main effects of trap crop on emergence of Striga where the lowest (26%) Striga emergence of about was recorded over the control with use of cowpea.Striga count at harvest of sorghum was significantly (P< 0.05) affected by the interaction effect of trap crop and N fertilizer where 46 kg N ha-1 and use of cowpea as trap crop reduced the number of Striga seed bank by about 52.3% over the control treatment. The partial budget analysis also showed that the highest(47998.8 Birr ha-1) net benefit was obtained with the use of cowpea as a trap crop and 46kgN ha-1 application. Thus, the use of cowpea as trap crop and 46 kg N ha-1was found to be promising both agronomical and economically

Effect of dietary cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L] walp) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds on growth performance, blood parameters and breast meat fatty acids in broiler chickens

The effects of dietary replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with two different protein sources (cowpea [CWP] and chickpea [CKP]) on growth performance (GP), blood parameters and breast meat fatty acids (FA) content were evaluated. A total of 780 one-d-old broiler chicks (Cobb 500) were allocated, over 2 growth phases (starter, 0–21 d; finisher, 22–42 d), to 5 dietary treatments as follow: (1) a corn-SBM basal diet as control; (2) 10% raw cowpea; (3) 20% raw cowpea; (4) 10% raw chickpea and (5) 20% raw chickpea. The results indicated that CWP and CKP diets conducted to similar GP (body weight, body weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio) when compared to the SBM diet, but changes in the content of blood parameters were observed. Glucose and total cholesterol decreased significantly in birds fed CWP (p<.0001) and CKP (p<.001) diet. Also, the use of CWP and CKP had a significant effect on the content of breast muscle FA, especially for alfa-linolenic (p <.0001), eicosapentaenoic (p<.0001), docosapentaenoic (p=.034) and docosahexaenoic (p =.003), which were higher than those fed SBM diet. In addition, there was a significant interaction between the protein source and the inclusion level (S × L) for the majority of the FA’s. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that CWP and CKP seeds represent an interesting alternative protein sources, which can improve broilers performance, health status and breast fatty acids composition. Highlights Cowpea (CWP) and chickpea (CKP) can be used as replacement for soybean meal in broiler chickens diets, at inclusion levels up to 200 g/kg. Dietary use of CWP and CKP decreased plasma cholesterol and glucose concentration. Use of CWP and CKP in broilers diets positively modified breast meat fatty acids, especially α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic or docosahexaenoic acids with potential benefits to human nutrition.

Influence of Organic Fertilization on the Physico-Chemical and Organoleptic Quality of Attiekes of Three Varieties of Cassava (Manihot esculenta C.)

Cassava occupies an important place in the food security of populations in Côte d'Ivoire. There are many products derived from cassava but«attiéké» remains the flagship product in Côte d'Ivoire. Faced with the productivity challenges, organic fertilization is increasingly used by farmers in order to sustainably increase cassava production. The perspective of our study is to assess the effects of the uncombined use of cowpea and poultry manure as organic soil fertilizers on certain physicochemical and sensory characteristics of «attiékés» of three varieties of cassava. To do this, on an experimental plot installed, cowpea fertilization was tested at planting densities of 62,500; 250,000 and 125,000 plants/ha and poultry manure at rates 5; 15 and 5 t/haon, respectively, the cassava varieties Yavo, BoCou1 and Yacé.The results obtained show that cowpea and poultry manure increased the dry matter content respectively by 3.99 and 3.53 % in the Yavo variety by 3.57 and 18.06 % in the BoCou 1 as well as by 17.43 and 17.64 % in the Yacé. For the other parameters of pH, titratable acidity, total carbohydrates and free glucose, the variations depended on the variety and the level of fertilization. The sensory attributes of attiekes from these varieties grown on fertilized soil have been accepted by consumers in terms of color, smell, taste and consistency. In addition, they were rated less good than the controls obtained without fertilizer due to color, taste and consistency, while in terms of odor, it would be the same rating.

Characterization of cowpea to harvest rainwater for wheat in semiarid conditions

Aim of study: A field experiment was executed, under rainfed conditions from 2014-15 to 2017-18, to study the role of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) in rainwater harvesting to enhance the wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield.Area of study: Rain-fed area of Pothwar region, Punjab, Pakistan.Material and methods: We designed three treatments (T1: control; T2: cowpea grown after conventional tillage and incorporated into soil to act as “green manure”; and T3: grown without any tillage practice, cut with sickle and spread as “mulch”). The effect of these treatments on soil moisture conservation was studied against conventional farmer’s practice, wherein no host crop is grown before wheat sowing.Main results: Available soil water remained highest in T2 during first three years when sufficient rainfall was received contrary to fourth year with low rainfall. The results revealed that cowpea biomass of 15.2 t/ha and 13.72 t/ha, from T2 and T3 respectively, were produced during 2015 corresponding to 213 mm rainfall. Whereas, these quantities increased to 25.69 t/ha and 24.29 t/ha during 2017 with 387 mm of rainfall. The study revealed that net income from wheat crop under T2 was Rs 13000 and Rs 9000 per hectare higher than that of control during the first two years respectively. Contrarily, net income from T2 was found negative and benefit-cost ratio reduced to 0.79 when very low rainfall was received during the last year.Research highlights: Use of cowpea as green manure gave maximum net return if sufficient rainfall is received during decomposition of cowpea and hence recommended for in-situ rainwater harvesting.

High-intensity ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from cowpea pods and its encapsulation in hydrogels

Currently and according to the growing worldwide interest in the revaluation of agricultural by-products, the use of legumes waste presents great potential to obtain bioactive compounds. In this context, an extract rich in phenolic compounds was obtained from Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) pods by optimizing the high-intensity ultrasound conditions (10 min and 36% of amplitude) using response surface methodology. Then, the extract was encapsulated in Ca(II)-alginate beads with the addition of arabic or guar gums or cowpea isolated proteins. A complete morphological study by image analysis and microstructural evaluation by SAXS has been carried out. Results showed that beads containing alginate and alginate-guar gum have the highest loading efficiency of total phenolic compounds (47 ± 5%) and antioxidant activity (44 ± 3%). However, the coupled effect of the cowpea extract and the isolated proteins (at it higher concentration) increased the antioxidant capacity of the beads due to the contribution of the phenolic compounds and the amino acids with anti-radical activity, reaching a value of 67 ± 3 % of inhibition of ABTS.+. Finally, the microstructural analyses revealed that cowpea pod extract increased the interconnectivity of the rods due to the presence of trivalent cations, conferring versatility, and larger coordination to the network. Also, it was observed that the addition of cowpea proteins produced more interconnected bigger and fewer compacts rods than beads containing only alginate, increasing 12 and 49 % the interconnection and the size, respectively, and decreasing 10 % their compactness. This research demonstrated the use of cowpea sub-products as a source of bioactive compounds that further modulate the microstructure of the hydrogel network, and the outstanding potential for being incorporated in techno-functional foods by using Ca(II)-alginate as a carrier.

Insights into nitrogen fixing traits and population structure analyses in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) accessions grown in Ghana.

With legumes, symbiotic N2 fixation can meet the species N demand and reduce the over-reliance on chemical fertilizers in tropical regions where N deficiency is a major factor limiting crop yields and increased agricultural sustainability. Therefore, to optimize the use of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) germplasm in effective breeding, evaluation of genetic diversity and quantification of N2 fixation are essential prerequisites. The aim of this study was to explore the level of diversity using SSR markers and N2-fixing traits in a set of cowpea germplasm grown in Ghana. We analysed 49 cowpea accessions collected from Northern Ghana using qualitative vegetative and N2 fixation traits, and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Experimental field results revealed considerable morpho-physiological variation for plant growth habits, grain yield and symbiotic performance between and among the cowpea accessions. Results from both the 15N natural abundance and ureides in the xylem sap were able to descriminate between high and low levels of N2 fixation in cowpea accessions. Five subpopulations were identified within accessions inferred from STRUCTURE2.3.4. A general linear model was used to assess the association of SSR markers with N2-fixing traits. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) links betweenSSR markers andsymbiosis-related traits such as nodule number, nodule dry weight, shoot dry weight, N-fixed, N derived from air (Ndfa), and relative uried-N (RU-N).

Pengaruh Formulasi Kadar Protein dan Kalsium pada MP-ASI Kacang Tunggak dan Beras Merah terhadap Uji Organoleptik pada Ibu Bayi dan Uji Daya Terima pada Bayi

Background: The prevalence of stunting toddlers in Indonesia is still high. The causes of stunting include the low nutritional value of food consumed by infants. Foods that are rich in nutrients include cowpea and brown rice. Objective: to determine the acceptability and protein and calcium content of porridge with the addition of cowpea and rice through organoleptic testing. Method: this type ofresearch is quasi-experimental. Data collection through organoleptic test on the baby’s mother and acceptance test in baby. Addition of cowpea and brown rice are X1 cowpea 100% brown rice 50% and X2 cowpea 50% and brown rice 100% Analysis of organoleptic test data on porridge using Mann Whitney. Results: Statistical test results showed that the use of cowpea and brown rice affected the color of the porridge (p=0.00) and the taste of the porridge (p=0.04). The use of cowpea and brown rice had no effect on the aroma of porridge (p=0.06), texture (p=0.93) and preference level (p=0.94). Results acceptance porridge with formula X2 more acceptable than X1 because have a higher average and less limp. The highest content of pro-tein and calcium in porridge at X1 is 3.29% and 70.40 mg / kg. Conclusion: the use of cowpea and brown rice in MP-ASI baby porridge affected the organoleptic test results in the color category, and he taste of the porridge.Keywords: cowpea, brown rice, weaning food

Comparison of soil organic carbon pools, microbial activity and crop yield and quality in two vegetable multiple cropping systems under mediterranean conditions

The use of legumes in multiple cropping may play an important role in nutrient cycling as it has an impact on organic matter dynamics and biological activity in the soil, although its effects depend on the specific plant species included in the multiple cropping. Organic management is in addition expected to decrease the negative impacts of conventional intensive farming through enhancements of the soil C sequestration and activation of microbial populations. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the effect of different cultivars of two legume species (cowpea –unusual in the study area- and faba bean –traditional in the study area) on soil C and pools, soil N, soil enzyme activities, and crop yield and quality of subsequent vegetable crops (broccoli and melon, respectively) grown under conventional or organic systems after two crop cycles. A comparison of a broccoli monoculture, a broccoli crop grown after cowpea (multiple cropping), a melon monoculture and a melon crop grown after faba bean (multiple cropping) showed that the broccoli/cowpea system was significantly more effective for increasing soil organic C (SOC), N and soil enzyme activities than melon/faba bean multiple cropping. In the cowpea/broccoli cropping, organic management contributed to the highest C sequestration. In the faba bean/melon cropping, conventional management practice led to the highest SOC and crop yield. In addition, the faba bean/melon cropping under organic management practice increased fruit length and sugar content respect to conventional management. The legume cultivar significantly affected soil N and dehydrogenase activity. Hence, the use of cowpea in multiple cropping with non-legume vegetables seems to be a sustainable option under semiarid conditions, since it improves soil microbial activity as a result of a higher C and N rhizodeposition. The use of faba bean can enhance melon quality, and so, obtain a higher income in the organic food market.

Does the use of cowpea in rotation with a vegetable crop improve soil quality and crop yield and quality? A field study in SE Spain

Abstract Information on the effect of cowpea-based rotations in horticulture under arid and semiarid environments are scarce despite the potential for increasing soil quality and fertility. Cowpea is a suitable legume in rotated cropping systems due to its relative tolerance to drought. The main goal of this study was to assess the effect of two cowpea cultivars, Feijao frade de fio preto (FP) and Feijao frade de fio claro (FC), during three crop rotation cycles, on soil fertility, yield, crop quality and nutritional composition of subsequent broccoli crops grown using mineral and organic fertilizers while decreasing fertilization rates by 20% compared with a broccoli monocrop. A cowpea crop was seen to contribute to increasing subsequent soil available P after three crop rotations compared to monocrop, using both fertilizers type (an increase of 30% and 120% using mineral and organic fertilizers, respectively). The use of mineral fertilizers increased broccoli head diameter (13–41 %) and yields (33–80 %), while the use of organic fertilizer increased soil aggregate stability (23–36 %) and soil enzyme activities (40–110 %). The use of organic fertilizers improved broccoli crop yield with time, with similar values than those obtained from mineral fertilizers at the end of the experiment. Thus, the introduction of cowpea in rotation under Mediterranean conditions was seen to be a good strategy for crop diversification and for reducing current N fertilizer dependency.

Water use of cowpea under deficit irrigation and cultivation systems in semi-arid region

ABSTRACT The resilience of crops to drought depends heavily on the cultural practices adopted, which can have a direct effect on water use efficiency. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of irrigation intervals on the growth, water consumption and water use efficiency of cowpea crops (cv. BRS Guariba) under conventional and no-tillage systems. The experiment was carried out in the semi-arid region of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, using a split-plot in a randomised complete block design, with four replications. Treatments consisted of two cultivation systems in the whole plots (conventional and no-tillage) and six irrigation intervals in the subplots (2, 6, 10, 14, 18 and 22 days) which were applied at full bloom. The biomass of the different parts of the plant, leaf area and leaf area index were assessed at 64 days after sowing (DAS) and grain yield, water consumption and water use efficiency at 70 DAS. No-tillage is a promising cultivation technique for cowpea crops, promoting higher grain yield and water use efficiency under semi-arid conditions. This system allows cowpea cultivation with irrigation intervals of 10 or 14 days, with no or small reduction in yield, respectively.

Comparing legumes for use in multiple cropping to enhance soil organic carbon, soil fertility, aggregates stability and vegetables yields under semi-arid conditions

Including legumes in rotation systems may be regarded as a sustainable way to improve soil quality and fertility for subsequent crops. Improvements in soil quality depend on inherent soil properties, climatic conditions, adopted management practices, type of fertilization (organic, chemical, legumes or biological). Hence, the aim of this study was to compare the effect of two legume species (cowpea and fava bean) on soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (Nt), NO3−, NH4+, available P, soil aggregate stability and the subsequent yields of two vegetable crops (broccoli and melon) grown under conventional or organic systems after two multiple cropping cycles. A comparison of a broccoli monoculture, broccoli grown after cowpea (multiple cropping), a melon monoculture and melon grown after fava bean (multiple cropping) showed that the broccoli/ cowpea double cropping was significantly more effective for increasing SOC and Nt than melon/fava bean double cropping. For the cowpea/broccoli multiple cropping, conventional management contributed to increasing SOC and Nt, while organic management increased available P, aggregate stability and crop yield, although this effect was cultivar dependent. The effect of management practice was not significant for the fava bean/melon except as regard crop yield, the melon yield being greater than monocrop under conventional management. Thus, the use of cowpea in multiple cropping was better for increasing SOC, soil fertility and crop yield of the subsequent crop than the use of fava bean, probably due to rhizodeposition processes. Hence, this crop could regarded as a viable alternative for sustainable crop production under semi-arid conditions.

Effect of Striga Trap Crops and Nitrogen Fertilizer Application on Yield and Yield Related Traits of Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] at Fedis District, Eastern Ethiopia

Striga causes a serious threat to successful cultivation of sorghum in areas of low and erratic rainfall and poor soil fertility. Therefore, to reduce yield losses and severity of Striga, a field experiment was conducted during the cropping season of 2015 on heavily Striga-infested field in Fedis District, Boko site to determine the effect of trap crops (cowpea, soybean, desmodium, control) and N fertilizer rates (0, 46, 92 and 138 kg N ha﹣1) on management of Striga, yield related traits and yield of sorghum. The experiment was laid out in a factorial arrangement in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Moreover, LAI, plant height, head weight plot﹣1 and aboveground dry biomass yield of sorghum were significantly (P < 0.05) increased by 4%, 9%, 28% and 33%, respectively, by use of cowpea as a trap crop over the control. Likewise use of cowpea as a trap crop significantly (P < 0.01) increased kernel weight head﹣1 by 6% and grain yield by 23% over the control. Similarly, the main effect of nitrogen showed that increased nitrogen rate up to 46 kg ha﹣1 significantly reduced Striga number at sorghum emergence by about 49.8% over control. Days to heading, flowering and maturity on sorghum were significantly (P < 0.01) affected by nitrogen fertilizer rate and the application of 46 kg N ha﹣1resulted in earlier heading by 6% over138 kg N ha﹣1. Application of 138 kg N ha﹣1delayed days to flowering by 6 days over 46 kg N ha﹣1. Plots that received 46 kg N ha﹣1 attained 90% physiological maturity earlier (127.1 days) than other treatments. Application of 46 kg N ha﹣1significantly increased kernel weight head﹣1 by 12% and aboveground dry biomass yield by 33% over the control. LAI and grain yield were significantly (p < 0.01) affected by main effect of N where the highest (2.387) leaf area index and the highest (3116 kg ha﹣1) grain yield were obtained with 46 kg N ha﹣1.

Potential use of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) stover treated with white-rot fungi as rabbit feed.

Lignin inhibitory effects within the cell wall structure constitute a serious drawback in maximizing the utilization of fibrous feedstuffs in animal feeding. Therefore treatments that promote efficient delignification of these materials must be applied. This study evaluated the potential of white-rot fungi to upgrade the nutritive value of cowpea stover for rabbit feeding. There was an increase in the crude protein content of all substrates as a result of fungi treatments, reaching a net gain of 13% for Pleurotus citrinopileatus incubation. Overall, net losses of dry and organic matter occurred during fungi treatments. Although the fiber content remained identical, higher consumption of cell wall contents was measured for P. citrinopileatus incubation (between 40 and 45%). The incubation period did not influence lignin degradation for any of the fungi treatments. Differences within the fungal degradation mechanisms indicate that P. citrinopileatus treatment was most effective, enhancing in vitro organic matter digestibility by around 30% compared with the control. Treatment of cowpea stover with P. citrinopileatus led to an efficient delignification process which resulted in higher in vitro organic matter digestibility, showing its potential in the nutritional valorization of this feedstuff. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

English

Toubani is a traditional ready-to-eat legume food, consumed as staple food with stews. This study investigated the socio-cultural profile of stakeholders, the traditional processing techniques and sensory quality attributes. For this purpose, a survey was carried out in two municipalities using a questionnaire managed to stakeholders. The results showed that toubani production is exclusively undertaken by women while consumption is by all classes of people. Three types of Toubani were identified, varying in their raw materials and processing technologies: the use of cowpea as a single element or in combination with yam. The sensory quality attributes of Toubani with regards to consumers’ preference was linked to the perception of processors. Key words: Toubani, cowpea, yam, quality attributes, production, consumption.

Improved grain yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) under water deficit after inoculation with Bradyrhizobium elkanii and Rhizophagus irregularis

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.), a plant broadly cultivated for human consumption and animal feed, is among the most nutritious grain legumes. Most of the areas where cowpea is grown are drought-prone, and there is a need to address this issue, with water scarcity becoming a major concern in agriculture. Cowpea is known to form mutualistic associations with nitrogen-fixing (NF) bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. These beneficial soil microorganisms have the capacity to benefit plants by reducing the effects of environmental stresses, including drought. Our aim was to study the effect of inoculation with Bradyrhizobium elkanii and Rhizophagus irregularis on the growth and grain yield of cowpea under water-deficit conditions. Under moderate water deficit, grain yield was increased by 63%, 55% and 84% in plants inoculated with B. elkanii, R. irregularis and B. elkanii + R. irregularis, respectively. Under severe water deficit, inoculation with B. elkanii and B. elkanii + R. irregularis resulted in grain-yield enhancement of 45% and 42%, respectively. The use of cowpea inoculated with NF bacteria and AM fungi has great potential for sustainable agricultural production under drought conditions.

Computer Algorithm for Irrigated Water – Yield Response of Cowpea under Sprinkler Irrigation System

A MATLAB Computer program on cowpea yield was developed to compare the yield obtained from the field under sprinkler irrigation system with the yield predicted by the developed model. Dry season experiment was conducted between January and April of 2014 at Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Soil physical and chemical properties of the experimental site were determined using standard procedures. The cowpea seeds were established on the field and four irrigation water managements were imposed on the crop. An algorithm comprising of existing empirical models from crop production functions were implemented using MATLAB based computer program. Yield response factor, ky and elasticity of water production (EWP) were also introduced into the algorithm in order to determine the maximum production of cowpea during the growing season of the experiment. The field seasonal yield, crop evapotranpiration and total water applied were input into the model to validate it so as to obtain corresponding model output (predicted yield). The model Original Research Article Faloye and Alatise; JAERI, 3(4): 168-184, 2015; Article no.JAERI.2015.045 169 predicted yield well. The yield results show a good degree of correlation with coefficient of determination r 2 equal to 0.96 and 0.98 for linear and quadratic production functions (ETPF) respectively. The optimized water use and yield of cowpea obtained from the developed model during the growing season were 382.34 mm and 0.996 tons/ha. The total amount of water that resulted to the optimum water use and yield was 446.23 mm. This result implies that 92% of total irrigation water applied during the growing season resulted to the optimum production of the crop. The model, therefore, proved to be useful in estimation of possible irrigation water to maximize yield and crop water use of cowpea.

Development and Assessment of Conformance of Cowpea Flour for Cake Production

Cowpea is a nutritious component in human diet as well as livestock feed. It is of major importance to the livelihoods of millions of people in developing countries because it is an important source of proteins, minerals and vitamins. The leaves, pods and seeds of cowpea are consumed. This study explored the feasibility of preparing a Supreme Quality Cowpea Flour (SQCF) as a substitute for wheat flour for the preparation of cakes. Development of the composite cowpea-wheat flour followed a 3 x 2 factorial design with cowpea-wheat proportions (100%:0%, 75%:25% and 50%:50%) and heat treatments (150 and 200 oC) as factors. The composite flour produced was then used to produce cake and evaluated sensorially based on ranking for preference. Hundred percent (100%) wheat flour cake was used as control. The composite flour with proportion 50%:50% cowpea: wheat baked at 200 oC produced the most preferred cake which was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in terms of taste (7.22±2.01) and overall acceptability (7.03±1.82) when compared with the taste (6.67±1.84) and overall acceptability (6.80 ±1.81) of the control. The application of this by industry will encourage the use of cowpea, a readily available legume for the production of cake.

Effect of fortification of maize with cowpea and iron on growth and anaemia status of children

Iron and iron deficiency anaemia is of concern globally, and most vulnerable are children and women. In Ghana, after six months of age when breast milk is not enough, children are given cereal-based gruels which are poor in nutrients. Addition of cowpea to maize improved nutrient quality but not enough to meet iron needs. We investigated the effect of iron-fortified maize-cowpea blend in controlling iron deficiency anaemia in a high risk population. Fifty-six children aged 6 - 18 months in two peri-urban communities were randomly assigned (i) iron-fortified food or (ii) non-iron fortified food, fed daily for six months. Haemoglobin concentration (Hb), serum iron, total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), transferrin saturation, weight, length and mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) were measured at baseline and at the end of intervention. Generally, growth improved in the iron fortified group over the control group. Iron status was improved in the test group. Significant differences were observed in haemoglobin concentration (1.08±1.43 compared with -0.40±1.72 g/dL, p=0.0009), and the risk of developing anaemia was about 3 times less likely among this group compared to the non-fortified group. The children liked the diets, and preparation did not create an additional burden for mothers. Use of cowpeas and maize are within the socio-cultural context of the people, hence the right vehicle for fortification and has implications for intervention, policy and advocacy. Key words: Iron status, anaemia, child growth, fortification, maize.

Enhancing utilization of cowpeas through gamma irradiation modification of functional properties

A major reason for the low utilization of cowpeas in southern African countries is the absence of variety in the foods prepared from cowpeas in these areas. In these countries, this legume is utilized primarily in the form of boiled whole seeds. Processing cowpea seeds to flour as well as to protein and starch functional ingredients may broaden the application of cowpeas. This may facilitate the production, promotion and use of cowpeas. To achieve tailored and specific uses in food systems, modification of functional properties of cowpeas may be required. Several techniques including the use of gamma irradiation are available to Food Scientists in this respect. Gamma irradiation has the potential to modify the functional properties of cowpeas mainly through its effects on inherent protein and starch components. The effects of &gamma;-irradiation on the functional properties of cowpea flour, as well as on protein and starch isolated from irradiated cowpea flours, were studied. The results show that most protein-related functional properties were significantly modified at 10 and/or 50 kGy whereas starch-related functional properties were modified at doses as low as 2 kGy. Some of the implications of these functional modifications of cowpea flour and its main components in relation to food systems are highlighted in this paper.

Integrative Approaches for Weed Management in Organic Citrus Orchards

Lack of effective weed control may hamper organic citrus establishment. Cover crop/weed biomass (CCW) indices were used to assess the effectiveness of annual and perennial cover crops (CC) in reducing weed growth. The CCW values for perennial peanut (PP) were 0.06, 0.14, 0.4, and 0.5 during 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively (very poor to poor weed control). Initial PP growth was slow and repeated mowing was required, but, over time, PP became more effective in controlling weeds. Weed biomass with sunn hemp was 0.3 Mg/ha in 2002 (CCW = 25, outstanding weed control) compared to 1.4 Mg/ha with use of cowpea (CCW = 1) in 2004. In 2004, the dry weights (Mg/ha) for different summer CC were: hairy indigo = 7.6, pigeon pea = 7.6, sunn hemp = 5.3, cowpea = 5.1, alyce clover = 2.9, velvet bean = 1.3, and lablab bean = 0.8. Corresponding 2005 values were: 9.5, 3.7, 12.6, 1.0, 1.9, and 1.4. Respective CCWI values were: 7, 4, 2, 16, 28, 0.6, and 0.3 (2004) vs. 17, 2, 64, 80, 0.5, 2, and 14. In 2004, winter CC production (Mg/ha) was radish (R) = 3.2, crimson clover (CR) = 1.7, oats (O) + lupine = 1.6, and rye (WR)/vetch (V) mix = 1.1. Results for 2005 were: CR + R + WR = 8.0, WR = 6.0; CR + WR = 5.3, CR = 5.0, CR + O + WR = 5.0, R = 4.3, and O = 3.6 Mg/ha. Corresponding values for CCW-indices were 15, 2, 1, and 3 (2004) and 100, 25, 76, 35, 62, 11, and 16 (2005). Although OMRI-approved herbicides showed up to 84% weed injury for selected species, none of these products provided long-term weed control. Combination of repeated tillage, use of compact/reseeding CC mixes in tree rows, more vigorous annual CC and/or perennial PP in row middle and repeated use of organic herbicides near sprinklers and tree trunks are thus required to ensure effective weed suppression in organic citrus.