Use Of Cognitive Tasks Research Articles

Subjektive Einschätzungen zur Bearbeitung einer Leseaufgabe in Ruhe und mit einem Hintergrundgeräusch

Subjective assessments of working on a reading task in silence and with background noise Background: The use of cognitive tasks is a typical approach to investigate the effects of noise on cognitive performance among employees. In a laboratory study on this topic, the performance measurements were complemented by subjective assessments to gain an insight into how participants experienced task processing in different acoustic conditions. Methods: In a study designed to investigate training effects on a proofreading task, all 51 participants gave subjective assessments on four aspects of task processing (effort, concentration, self-assessed performance, disturbance) after completing the task. The scales ranging from 0 to 100 were presented twice in the repeated measurement design. Participants were assigned either to a group working on the proofreading task twice in silence (“silence group”) or twice with speech as a background sound (“speech group”). Results: The analyses of variance carried out separately for each aspect revealed no significant differences between the assessments at the two points of measurement but, on average, participants in the “speech group” reported significantly more effort, more disturbance, less concentration, and a lower self-assessed performance than participants in the “silence group”. The correlation between the assessments in both test runs was clearly visible in all questions (r > 0.05 respectively), whilst the interrelation between the subjective assessments and the measured task performance varied between all four questions. Conclusion: Although performance measurements sometimes show only small effects of potentially adverse noise, the results from the subjective assessments produced a clear outcome, underlining the necessity to protect employees from unwanted noise at the workplace in order to minimise disturbance or effort and to allow concentrated working. Keywords: noise – sounds – proofreading – reading – subjective assessments

Effect of cognitive task complexity on dual task postural stability: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The dual task experimental paradigm is used to probe the attentional requirements of postural control. However, findings of dual task postural studies have been inconsistent with many studies even reporting improvement in postural stability during dual tasking and thus raising questions about cognitive involvement in postural control. A U-shaped non-linear relationship has been hypothesized between cognitive task complexity and dual task postural stability suggesting that the inconsistent results might have arisen from the use of cognitive tasks of varying complexities. To systematically review experimental studies that compared the effect of simple and complex cognitive tasks on postural stability during dual tasking, we searched seven electronic databases for relevant studies published between 1980 to September 2020. 33 studies involving a total of 1068 participants met the review's inclusion criteria, 17 of which were included in meta-analysis (healthy young adults: 15 studies, 281 participants; Stroke patients: 2 studies, 52 participants). Narrative synthesis of the findings in studies involving healthy old adults was carried out. Our result suggests that in healthy population, cognitive task complexity may not determine whether postural stability increases or decreases during dual tasking (effect of cognitive task complexity was not statistically significant; P > 0.1), and thus the U-shaped non-linear hypothesis is not supported. Rather, differential effect of dual tasking on postural stability was observed mainly based on the age of the participants and postural task challenge, implying that the involvement of cognitive resources or higher cortical functions in the control of postural stability may largely depends on these two factors.

Leveraging electrophysiologic correlates of word encoding to map seizure onset zone in focal epilepsy: Task-dependent changes in epileptiform activity, spectral features, and functional connectivity.

Verbal memory dysfunction is common in focal, drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). Unfortunately, surgical removal of seizure-generating brain tissue can be associated with further memory decline. Therefore, localization of both the circuits generating seizures and those underlying cognitive functions is critical in presurgical evaluations for patients who may be candidates for resective surgery. We used intracranial electroencephalographic (iEEG) recordings during a verbal memory task to investigate word encoding in focal epilepsy. We hypothesized that engagement in a memory task would exaggerate local iEEG feature differences between the seizure onset zone (SOZ) and neighboring tissue as compared to wakeful rest ("nontask"). Ten participants undergoing presurgical iEEG evaluation for DRE performed a free recall verbal memory task. We evaluated three iEEG features in SOZ and non-SOZ electrodes during successful word encoding and compared them with nontask recordings: interictal epileptiform spike (IES) rates, power in band (PIB), and relative entropy (REN; a functional connectivity measure). We found a complex pattern of PIB and REN changes in SOZ and non-SOZ electrodes during successful word encoding compared to nontask. Successful word encoding was associated with a reduction in local electrographic functional connectivity (increased REN), which was most exaggerated in temporal lobe SOZ. The IES rates were reduced during task, but only in the non-SOZ electrodes. Compared with nontask, REN features during task yielded marginal improvements in SOZ classification. Previous studies have supported REN as a biomarker for epileptic brain. We show that REN differences between SOZ and non-SOZ are enhanced during a verbal memory task. We also show that IESs are reduced during task in non-SOZ, but not in SOZ. These findings support the hypothesis that SOZ and non-SOZ respond differently to task and warrant further exploration into the use of cognitive tasks to identify functioning memory circuits and localize SOZ.

Preparation of Junior Schoolchildren for Studying New Material at Mathematics Lessons according to M. V. Bogdanovich’s Views

The article presents an analysis of the views of Mikhail Vasilievich Bogdanovich (1925-2006), a well-known Ukrainian scientist-methodologist in the field of studying mathematics in elementary school, on the problem of preparing primary school pupils for studying new mathematical material. Modern approaches to organizing the educational process in elementary school require extensive use of cognitive tasks. Such tasks make pupils think, rather than perceive ready-made information. Mathematics lessons have ample opportunities for this. The study aims to analyze the works by M. Bogdanovich on the use of cognitive tasks for ensuring the effective preparation of students for the study of the new material. The practical significance lies in the fact that the article outlines the main ways to ensure the effective preparation of junior schoolchildren for learning new mathematical material. The study allows us to conclude that at present there is an increasingly active search for updating the content of school education, in particular, the intensification of the search for new options for an elementary Mathematics course to increase its effectiveness, both in teaching and in the general development of primary school children. As a consequence, it is imperative to be concerned about using techniques that increase pupils’ activity in the classroom. To develop a cognitive interest in mathematical knowledge, teachers use a variety of methods and techniques for teaching mathematics, both traditional and innovative. We believe that along with an active search for methodological innovations, a detailed acquaintance with the extensive work of the scientist-methodologist M. Bogdanovich on this issue will become an effective help to the teacher. Further research will be devoted to a detailed analysis of other components of the theoretical and methodological heritage of the scientist.

Does inattentional blindness exist in horses (Equus caballus)?

Inattentional Blindness (IB) is a phenomenon which has been widely researched in humans. If attention is highly focused, humans may become blind to other environmental cues. To further understand the perception of horses, we applied the well-tested experimental design of human IB studies to the first study of this kind in horses. Since the use of cognitive tasks in human IB-studies ensures that the subject’s attention is focused in a certain direction, we wanted to show if a food reward is strong enough to induce IB in the horse while confronted with a novel object. Therefore, we tested 24 horses, divided in an experimental (n = 12) and a control group (n = 12). The horses had to walk through the same corridor (10 m) for 12 consecutive trials. In the experimental group, animals were trained to focus on a food reward presented at the end of the corridor. Their duration to pass the run decreased significantly, indicating that an expectation focused on the feed was induced. In the test trials 11 and 12, a startle stimulus was presented to both groups. The response to the novel object was scored from 1 (no reaction) to 5 (flight reaction). We found a significant difference between the groups in the second test run with the experimental group showing lower reactions to the novel object (p = 0.018). The horses in the experimental group where not completely “blind” to the object, but the food reward clearly influenced their reaction. The results of the study suggest that while the occurrence of IB in horses has yet to be proven, a suitable distractor can lower horses’ startle response to a novel object. By further investigation into IB, new insight into the perception of horses can emerge and improve the understanding between horses and their handlers.

A Hierarchical Model of Inhibitory Control.

Inhibitory control describes the suppression of goal-irrelevant stimuli and behavioral responses. Current developmental taxonomies distinguish between Response Inhibition – the ability to suppress a prepotent motor response, and Attentional Inhibition – the ability to resist interference from distracting stimuli. Response Inhibition and Attentional Inhibition have exhibited moderately strong positive correlations in previous studies, suggesting they are closely related cognitive abilities. These results may reflect the use of cognitive tasks combining Stimulus–Stimulus- and Stimulus–Response-conflict as indicators of both constructs, which may have conflated their empirical association. Additionally, previous statistical modeling studies have not controlled for individual differences in Working Memory Capacity, which may account for some of the empirical overlap between Response Inhibition and Attentional Inhibition. The aim of the current study was to test a hierarchical model of inhibitory control that specifies Working Memory Capacity as a higher-order cognitive construct. Response Inhibition and Attentional Inhibition were conceptualized as lower-order cognitive mechanisms that should be empirically independent constructs apart from their shared reliance on Working Memory Capacity for active maintenance of goal-relevant representations. Measures of performance on modified stimulus–response compatibility tasks, complex memory span, and non-selective stopping tasks were obtained from 136 preadolescent children (M = 11 years, 10 months, SD = 8 months). Consistent with hypotheses, results from Structural Equation Modeling demonstrated that the Response Inhibition and Attentional Inhibition factors were empirically independent constructs that exhibited partial statistical dependence on the Working Memory Capacity factor. These findings have important implications for current theories and models of inhibitory control during development.

Advances in the Assessment of Sexual Deviance.

This paper reviews recent research into four different approaches to the assessment of offense-related sexual deviance. Two of these approaches, structured rating scales and phallometry, have a sufficient basis in research for clinical use but have undergone significant refinements in recent years. One approach, the use of cognitive tasks to indirectly assess sexual deviance, is approaching the point where it has a sound research basis for clinical use though too many promising tasks have yet to make the transition from laboratory to clinical practice. This approach has however begun to map the earlier stages of sexual response including preconscious processes. The final approach, assessment through neuroimaging, is at the earliest stage of development with research findings having yet to reach sufficient stability for clinical application. Existing assessment technologies, despite their limitations, allow professionals to assess offense-related sexual deviance. New approaches, currently being developed, potentially allow a better understanding of underlying processes and, when sufficiently mature, will be more therapeutically useful.

Do “Brain-Training” Programs Work?

In 2014, two groups of scientists published open letters on the efficacy of brain-training interventions, or “brain games,” for improving cognition. The first letter, a consensus statement from an international group of more than 70 scientists, claimed that brain games do not provide a scientifically grounded way to improve cognitive functioning or to stave off cognitive decline. Several months later, an international group of 133 scientists and practitioners countered that the literature is replete with demonstrations of the benefits of brain training for a wide variety of cognitive and everyday activities. How could two teams of scientists examine the same literature and come to conflicting “consensus” views about the effectiveness of brain training? In part, the disagreement might result from different standards used when evaluating the evidence. To date, the field has lacked a comprehensive review of the brain-training literature, one that examines both the quantity and the quality of the evidence according to a well-defined set of best practices. This article provides such a review, focusing exclusively on the use of cognitive tasks or games as a means to enhance performance on other tasks. We specify and justify a set of best practices for such brain-training interventions and then use those standards to evaluate all of the published peer-reviewed intervention studies cited on the websites of leading brain-training companies listed on Cognitive Training Data (www.cognitivetrainingdata.org), the site hosting the open letter from brain-training proponents. These citations presumably represent the evidence that best supports the claims of effectiveness. Based on this examination, we find extensive evidence that brain-training interventions improve performance on the trained tasks, less evidence that such interventions improve performance on closely related tasks, and little evidence that training enhances performance on distantly related tasks or that training improves everyday cognitive performance. We also find that many of the published intervention studies had major shortcomings in design or analysis that preclude definitive conclusions about the efficacy of training, and that none of the cited studies conformed to all of the best practices we identify as essential to drawing clear conclusions about the benefits of brain training for everyday activities. We conclude with detailed recommendations for scientists, funding agencies, and policymakers that, if adopted, would lead to better evidence regarding the efficacy of brain-training interventions.

Immunization and reversibility of cognitive deficits due to learned helplessness

Predictions made from the learned-helplessness model received support in three experiments. The effects of response-outcome independence, as well as immunization and reversibility of such effects were demonstrated with human subjects. It was also demonstrated that differences in locus of control, sex and attribution, influenced those results. Furthermore, the effects of modeling and the use of cognitive tasks for both pretreatment and reversibility were examined.