Use Of Biological Weapons Research Articles

«Биологические войны» как новая международная проблема политиков и военных России

The globalization of the global market economy and the unregulated global population of 8 billion people create threats of global warming of the Earth with its transformation into a hot lifeless Venus. The aggravation of the global situation for the survival of countries and peoples and major military conflicts are ahead. New "green technologies" do not allow us to abandon the increasing combustion of hydrocarbons. At the same time, a secret creation of a new biological weapon of mass destruction is underway. Defense and biomedical problems in Russia are largely recognized at the level of society, the state, the military and special services. The main stages of creation and sabotage use of biological weapons are studied. The specifics of new bioterrorism technologies are analyzed. Preventive defense measures for Russia in the current conditions are substantiated. The analysis showed that the scale of financing of R&D in the field of biology, medicine, genetics in Russia since 2000 does not meet the required structural reorganization of Russian industry and new rapidly developing areas of science, engineering and technology in the world. The main results of the study, which have theoretical and practical significance, include conclusions about a significant increase in the risks of potential aggressors using biological weapons against the enemy in the context of rapid scientific and technological progress in the world, especially in biology, genetics, medicine. A conclusion is made about the need for additions and amendments to the current international and national laws in order to prevent new military-biological initiatives and projects. The necessity of forming a new military-political point of view in Russia is substantiated, that what is brewing is not just wars for the redistribution of natural resources, but genocidal wars for the survival of the strongest countries and peoples, to which our state currently belongs. Threats to Russia from bioterrorism and sabotage biological wars are surmountable, but require a mobilization economy, significant funds and resources.

The Biological Weapons Amendment to the ICC Statute and National Provisions

Abstract After a contentious path, the amendment incorporating biological weapons into Article 8 of the ICC Statute was finally adopted in 2017. Since then, 18 states have ratified the amendment. This article examines the amendment in light of national provisions addressing the use of biological weapons in armed conflict. By discussing the national provisions before and after the amendment, it is possible to determine the effect of the amendment on subsequent national provisions. Combined with an analysis of states’ rationale for adopting relevant legislation, it is possible to assess the impact on state practice and consequently understand the significance of adopting an amendment to the ICC Statute and incorporating it into national legislation for the development or confirmation of customary international law. The lessons learned in the process could be applied to other existing or future amendments.

Prohibiting the use of biological weapons: diverging national measures, a comparative analysis

Abstract To ensure an effective international prohibition on the use of biological weapons, an international framework of national prohibitions needs to exist. This article looks comparatively at the national prohibitions on the use of biological weapons and considers the effect of common approaches. This research is based on a near-comprehensive collection of national legislation addressing the use of biological weapons. Investigating the common approaches allows for the identification of potential gaps within the international framework of national prohibitions, indicating the potential benefit of developing an international obligation to implement national measures prohibiting the use of biological weapons.

Bioterrorism in the Twenty-First Century: Exploring the Threat of Potential use of Biological Weapons by Anti-State Agents

Bioterrorism involves the intentional dissemination of biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, or fungi, with the aim of causing widespread fear, illness, and death among targeted populations. Anti-state agents, including terrorist organizations or individuals with extremist ideologies, may employ bioterrorism as a means to achieve their political, ideological, or religious objectives. The study explores the motivation behind the potential use of bioterrorism by anti-state agents, the threat of biological warfare, and the state readiness in the case of a biological attack. It examines the history of biological warfare, the factors that make biological warfare attractive to terrorist organizations including potential for mass casualties, psychological factors behind the attacks, access of biological agents, and the issues and challenges associated with detection, responses, and prevention of a biological attack by anti-state agents. The research used securitization theory to understand the phenomenon behind biological warfare. The study identified that despite the small scale of biological attacks in the past by anti-state agents, the threat has increased in the recent times as the technological advances and access to these agents make the people vulnerable to such attacks by the non-state actors . The study also concluded that strengthening global surveillance systems, enhancing public health infrastructure, and promoting information sharing among states and international emergency response services are vital in preventing and mitigating the impact of bioterrorist attacks.

К истории биологического оружия

Towards the history of biological weapons The article provides a brief overview of the basic information on the history of the development, production, testing and use of biological weapons in different countries. The general characteristics of biological weapons are given, the main goals, objectives and methods of their use are considered. The specifi c fact s o f th e use of combat strains of natural and modified microorganisms, natural toxins for military purposes, as well as the facts of the leakage of biological weapons from military microbiological laboratories and industrial facilities engaged in the production of biological weapons, with the defeat of the civilian population, are given.

Invisible Warfare: The Psychological Impact of Biological Weapons in the Context of International Humanitarian Law

This study investigates the historical and modern use of biological weapons as effective psychological warfare tools, delving into the motivations for their use as well as the catastrophic psychological effects they cause. The paper also examines examples such as Japan's use of biological weapons during World War II and the 2001 Anthrax attacks in the United States to highlight the profound psychological consequences of using biological agents in warfare. Despite their classification as weapons of mass destruction, compliance with International Humanitarian Law remains a major concern. Further, the author emphasizes humans' inherent psychological vulnerability to biological weapons threats, revealing how the fear of invisible, contagious, and potentially lethal agents can cause widespread anxiety, paranoia, and social disruption. The study uses the recent COVID-19 pandemic as a case study to highlight the effect that such threats have on an adversary's resolve and morale. It also looks into the past use of fear-mongering to win over the public to unwarranted military actions, like the "shock and awe" attack on Iraq. In summary, the paper advocates for global collaboration and awareness to prevent biological weapons from being used in psychological warfare. It calls attention to the grave dangers such acts pose to global peace and security, as well as their profound and potentially irreversible psychological effects.

Воєнні та військові злочини в кримінальному законодавстві Російської імперії, РРФСР та Російської Федерації: теорія і безпосередня практика

The qualification of military and war crimes in the legislation of the Tsardom of Muscovy, the Russian Empire, the RSFSR and modern Russia is considered. A conclusion about the primacy of military expediency over considerations of universal morality and humanism is made. Thus, the legislation of the Tsardom of Muscovy foresaw the possibility of turning the so-called boyar children (the younger layer of the boyars), suspended by the tsar from service, into kholops (serfs). The military legislation of Peter I does not distinguish between the suicide of a soldier and treason. The military reform of Alexander II, carried out by Minister Milyutin, somewhat liberalized military legislation and created a clear system of military courts. The refusal of the Provisional Government to use the death penalty disorganized the Russian army, and this was considered by the Bolsheviks while creating the Red Guards and the Red Army. During the civil war, the Bolshevik headship even used decimation regarding the Red Army men. After the end of hostilities, military crimes (Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1922) were generally punished more mildly, but the tightening of the screws in the direction of repression’s increase began almost immediately. These processes reached their apogee during the Second World War when the widest range of cases was handed over to military tribunals. In the Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1960, the number of military crimes doubled, and the sanction became as severe as possible (up to the death penalty). The concept of a war crime is first mentioned in Article 67.1. The use of biological weapons, but it was introduced into the Code by the Law of the Russian Federation, dated 29.04.1993. The criminal code of the modern Russian Federation includes both military and war crimes, the sanctions are severe, but thesein no way restrain the Russian army, Rosgvardiya (National Guard of Russia), and paramilitary formations during a full-scale war against Ukraine. The world has witnessed numerous crimes against the civilian population, prisoners of war, and the environment (the blowing up of the Kakhovka HPP).

EVALUATION OF HEALTH INTELLIGENCE STUDIES IN TURKEY

The last major epidemic, the COVID-19 pandemic, has revealed that there are many deficiencies in the health field. During the COVID-19 pandemic, as far as the media followed, many countries had difficulties accessing medical supplies, vaccines, and drugs and did not allow some medical products to leave the country. It has been observed that the necessary materials have disappeared with the work of the intelligence agencies of some countries. Politicians and scientists from many countries have put forth conspiracy theories about the source of the pandemic and the country of origin, and accusations have included claims about the use of biological weapons. This study aims to reveal what health intelligence is and what kinds of studies are done in Turkey and around the world. For this, the in-depth literature study of the case pattern study, one of the qualitative research methods, was used. In the analysis of the study, a descriptive analysis was made and the results were discussed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SITUATION IN AREAS OF MILITARY CONFLICTS AND ANTHROPOGENIC DISASTERS

This article presents an overview of the characteristics pointing out the deterioration of the epidemiological situation during military conflicts and anthropogenic disasters drawing form the latest literature. There are particular conditions that can provoke emergencies, among them military conflicts, natural disasters, humanitarian crises, man-made disasters, the use of biological weapons, particularly within the context of the Russian military invasion of Ukraine. The emergency conditions according to the principles of the sanitary and epidemiological service involve sudden and often unpredictable disruptions to normal everyday circumstances. These disruptions stem from disasters, natural calamities, and their aftermath, resulting in significant human casualties and widespread illness.
 The most important factors affecting the development of epidemiological circumstances include violations of the water supply system, contamination of food products, washing away various chemicals into water bodies, flooding of natural biocenoses, crowding, stress, increased sensitivity to infections, intensive migration processes. The complete or partial destruction of the material and technical base of health care and the sanitary-epidemiological service with disruption of the activities of medical and preventive institutions in the occupied territories also significantly affects the epidemiological situation. Given the eastern and southern regions in Ukraine, the emergency situation with severe epidemic complications has been observed for a year in the cities and villages occupied by Russians. As a result of serious violations of living conditions in disaster areas, war zones, and occupied territories, the epidemic situation regarding intestinal infections, including typhoid, paratyphoid, viral hepatitis, dysentery, and salmonellosis, has sharply worsened. Moreover, the increase in the incidence of them occurs in the first weeks after the action of the extreme factor. Crowding of people contributes to the intensification of aerosol contamination. Particularly dangerous in this regard are meningococcal disease, viral pneumonia, diphtheria and other contagious diseases. In addition, the high risk of critical deterioration of the epidemiological situation in Ukraine causes a high probability of the use of chemical and biological weapons by russians.

Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.

Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.

Hideo Fukumi: Medical research in the shadow of biological warfare.

Hideo Fukumi (1914-1998) is renowned for his position as the director of Japan's National Institute of Health and his scientific contributions to the fields of bacteriology, virology and epidemiology. This article introduces Fukumi's career cultivated over decades in the Japanese national medical system and focuses on his research on Shigella, Salmonella and influenza. Yet any assessment of his career also has to take into account the considerable controversy and scandal it engendered. This necessary reassessment situates Fukumi's contribution within what has been revealed of Japan's biological weapons programme which reached its zenith during the Second World War. Very few scientists, including Fukumi, were prosecuted for their roles in this programme. Contrarily, they became core personnel in post-war medical research due to the patronage of the United States-Japan alliance in the context of the Cold War. Controversies that later surfaced over Fukumi's role in influenza immunisation campaigns reflect two currents of debate: A belated reckoning with Japan's use of biological weapons and the way this was 'normalised' and overlooked in the post-war period. The role of Japanese scholars and citizens' movements who have interrogated Japanese war crimes and the U.S. cover-ups and made a demand for greater ethical transparency in medical science.

Biological Weapons as an Object and Means of Committing Crimes

The article presents a study on the actual and topic of criminal law protection of biological safety of the Russian Federation. A brief description of biological weapons as an object and means of criminal encroachment is given, examples of the evaluation of this concept by the scientific community are given, the problems of establishing criminal liability for the use of this type of weapon or its components as a means of committing crimes are analyzed. Legislative formulations of criminal law prohibitions of acts committed with or with the use of biological weapons are compared with a doctrinal approach to clarifying their content, attention is drawn to the need to change the prevailing interpretation of the provisions of part 2 of Article 356 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, it is noted that the legislator does not always take into account the increased danger of dangerous biological materials used in the commission of a crime. As a result of the study, it is concluded that modern legislation regarding the application or use of various biocomponents needs to be improved.

A playbook on investigations into biological events of ambiguous origin

ABSTRACT Biological events—including outbreaks and pandemics, biological-weapons use, and accidental laboratory release—have the potential to be extremely disruptive. The ability to accurately investigate, identify the origins of, and attribute these events is critical for deterring deliberate events and implementing interventions to prevent future natural or accidental events. However, historical examples of biological-event attribution and origins investigations illustrate significant gaps in processes, from technical capabilities to communications, and have not resulted in conclusive consensus among decision makers, the public, and scientists. The research described in this article aimed to assess attitudes and expectations of a broad range of stakeholders regarding investigations and the evidence they generated for biological attribution. The authors interviewed 41 experts in disciplines related to attribution and investigations and then analyzed the interview content using a mixed-methods approach. Interviews generated a list of factors to consider when planning or conducting investigations. Among the interviewees, opinions varied by field of study on how to analyze the biological samples, how to communicate the results of the investigation, and how feasible it would be to reach a conclusion about who was responsible. Participant opinions varied less with regard to requirements, protocols, and guidelines thought to be important to maintaining confidence in the technical details of an investigation and the evidence it produces. Findings from this study can inform planning for future events.

The use of biological weapons from the past to the present: historical and legal aspects

The use of biological weapons from the past to the present: historical and legal aspects

ASSESSMENT OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE DETERIORATION OF THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SITUATION DURING HOSTILITIES.

The aim: Scientific substantiation of the methodology for predicting the consequences of the worsening of the epidemic situation on the territory of Ukraine during military operations for the timely adoption of measures for the medical protection of military personnel in conditions of biological contamination. Materials and methods: Determination and generalization of the impact of biological contamination due to the use of biological weapons were carried out considering the main determinants of the epidemic process using the index and coefficient of medical protection. Applied methods of scientific research: epidemiological, system, and information approach. Results: The authors proposed indicators that consider the pathogenicity of the infectious agent, contagiousness, the degree of non-specific protection of servicemen, specific protection of servicemen, and the sanitary-epidemiological state of the area of operations of troops (forces). Relevant epidemic situations were simulated, and the index and coefficient of medical protection were calculated to predict the consequences of the worsening of the epidemic situation to make timely decisions regarding the implementation of medical protection measures for military personnel in conditions of biological contamination during the repulsion of armed aggression. Conclusions: In the conditions of biological contamination, when biological weapons and biological terrorism are used, the epidemic process in the army is intensified, which requires timely decisions regarding the implementation of medical protection measures for military personnel in conditions of biological contamination.

Inhumane medicine: imperial japan’s development and the use of biological weapons during World War II

There is currently an acute lack of information on the activities of Japanese doctors during World War II. Being a country with limited natural, financial, and human resources, Imperial Japan considered biological and chemical weapons one of the most promising and effective means of warfare in its quest to dominate Southeast Asia. In the mid 1920s, the Japanese leadership approved biological and chemical warfare research. The implementation of the biological weapons project, including human testing, was entrusted to Shiro Ishii and a group of Japanese scientists under his leadership, as well as to military and civilian experts. These studies examined the effectiveness of plague, gas gangrene, cholera, anthrax, and other pathogens. Experiments, including detailed descriptions of the subjects suffering and the results of autopsies/vivisections, were carefully documented. Field tests involved the distribution of contaminated food and crops to the Chinese population, as well as the contamination of water supplies. Similarly, in keeping with military interests, the effectiveness of munitions and the effects of decompression, hypothermia, and electric current were investigated on prisoners. After the end of World War II and the surrender of Imperial Japan, large-scale buried victims of experiments were found on the territory of the Peoples Republic of China, including the borders of the USSR. The paper focuses on the ethical component of the studies conducted, based on the dominant view in the Japanese society that all actions for the glory of the country and the emperor are justified and the absence of any ethical considerations due to the prejudice of the Japanese against foreigners in general and the Chinese in particular.

An Overview of Biological Warfare and SARS-CoV-2 as a Potential Biological Agent

The conflict between humans did not stop throughout the ages, and humans have used everything in nature to serve this conflict since the first ages of history, during the First World War when the world witnessed the actual use of chemical weapons, and nuclear weapons during World War II By the United States of America against Japan, which greatly developed a biological warfare program before and during World War II, and a lot of information regarding this program was withheld by an agreement between Japan and the USA after Japan’s defeat in the war. Finally, the countries of the world succeeded in signing a Biological Warfare Convention (BWC) in 1972, and the Ninth Review Conference will be held for this convention during 2021 to discuss its articles and try to develop its mechanisms to prevent the development and use of biological weapons in the conflict between nations. According to the British novelist George Orwell, “Life is a race between education and catastrophe”. As the great development in the field of genetic technologies and the production of vaccines collided with the emergence of new pathogens, the latest of which is the emerging SARS-CoV-2 virus that caused the COVID-19 pandemic around the world, and once again the major countries have been accused by each other of spreading this virus in the world intentionally or by accident. We must carefully examine these allegations before making decisions, because these allegations may have negative repercussions on the future of humanity. Key words: biological, warfare, weapons, BWC, genetic engineering, COVID-19 pandemic

Criminalistic Implementation of Counteraction to the Use of Biotechnologies in the event of Commission of Criminal Offences

Achievements in the field of biotechnology raise the standard of human life and improve its quality, open up new opportunities for social activity, including for business, and are also used when combating crime. The paper analyzes the problems associated with the study of trace substances of human biological origin, the collection and storage of genomic information, the formation of such a direction as DNA forensics. The author examines the issue of criminal threats associated with the use of biotechnologies, including crimes committed with the use of biological weapons, bioterrorism, and analyzes the criminal use of biotechnologies, including the sphere of assisted human reproduction. The paper defines the possibilities of criminalistics in the process of countering the use of biotechnologies in the commission of criminal offences. First, we are talking about the development of measures to prevent crimes in this area, creation of methods for investigating crimes committed in this area, development of effective technical, tactical and methodological recommendations for verifying information that is significant from a forensic standpoint.The author proves that further development of biotechnologies is impossible without proper legal regulation, without protection from criminal risks. The high level of abuse, including of a criminal nature, in the field of genomic research determines the need to form a scientific basis for developing measures to respond to criminal risks in the field of artificial human reproduction, as well as measures to counter criminal activity in this area. In view of this, according to the author, there is a need to adopt a separate federal law on assisted reproductive technologies.

The state of legal regulation of the handling of biological weapons in Ukraine

The issue of epidemic safety has been relevant in recent years. The large-scale war that began by Russia on February24, 2022 not only did not solve the issue of protecting public health from various threats, but on the contrary, exacerbatedand increased their relevance. It is necessary to state the constant tension due to the growing risk of Russia’s use of variousweapons, including biological ones, against Ukraine, which is a type of weapon of mass destruction.Given this situation, the article examines the state of legal regulation of the handling of biological weapons in Ukraine.It is stated that such legal regulation corresponds to world trends. Our state is a participant in all international actsrelated to the prohibition and prevention of the use of biological weapons. An analysis of a number of international acts(Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methodsof Warfare (1925), The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (The Biological Weapons Convention or BWC) (1972) etc.),has revealed some of their shortcomings, which lead to the possibility of avoiding responsibility for the development ofbiological weapons or to the difficulty of proving such activities by a particular state. It is established that theseshortcomings lead to the lack of a sufficiently effective mechanism to protect humanity from the use of such weapons. Atthat time, the authors came to the conclusion that national legislation contains strict and sufficient prohibitions on suchacts. At the same time, the paradigm of national security should be reconsidered by creating an effective mechanism forcombating threats to public health, as well as overcoming medical, biological, economic, social, humanitarian and otherconsequences of the spread of particularly dangerous infectious diseases. In general, the existence of armed conflict inour country increases the threat of using biological weapons against civilians or the military, which necessitates deepdevelopment of the problem at the fundamental level for optimal legislative consolidation of new approaches to Ukraine’sepidemic security as part of its national security.

Operations of special processing task forces during the COVID-19 pandemic as an example for the aftermath of terrorist attacks with the use of biological weapons

Operations of special processing task forces during the COVID-19 pandemic as an example for the aftermath of terrorist attacks with the use of biological weapons