Use Of Animal Traction Research Articles

New evidence for prehistoric ploughing in Europe

For the past four decades, the ‘Secondary Products Revolution’ model, i.e., the exploitation of animal resources that do not involve killing the animal, such as the production of milk and wool and the use of animals for physical labour has been the object of heated discussion between Neolithic scholars. According to this model, the use of animal strength arrived relatively late in Europe—during the socio-economic changes of the Late Neolithic in the 4th millennium BCE. Plough marks are the most convincing direct evidence of the use of animal traction. However, few are preserved making them relatively rare throughout Europe and dating them is difficult and often imprecise. Recent research at the Anciens Arsenaux site in Sion, Valais, Switzerland has revealed the presence of the oldest known plough marks in Europe, dating from the beginning of the 5th millennium BCE. They bear witness to the use of animal traction quite soon after the establishment of an agro-pastoral economy in the Alpine region. This is corroborated by recent archaeozoological studies and suggests that this important innovation could already be part of the Neolithic package introduced into Europe during the 6th millennium BCE.

Modern Animal Traction to Enhance the Supply Chain of Residual Biomass

Throughout history, the use of animals for agricultural and forestry work has been closely associated with human societies, with multiple references to animal power being utilized for various tasks since the Neolithic period. However, the advent of industrialization has fundamentally transformed the reality of society, leading to a significant shift towards the mechanization of processes. Despite this, animal traction continues to play an important role as a workforce in many developing countries and developed nations, where there is a renewed interest in the use of animal traction, particularly for tasks intended to have a reduced environmental impact and a smaller carbon footprint. The present study conducted a SWOT analysis to examine the potential of animal traction as an alternative for the recovery processes of forest residual woody biomass, particularly when the use of mechanical equipment is not feasible. This can contribute to the creation of value chains for residual products, which can be harnessed for energy recovery. The utilization of modern animal traction can promote the sustainable development of projects at the local and regional level, with efficient utilization of endogenous resources and the creation of value for residual forest woody biomass. This approach can thus facilitate the optimization of supply chains, from biomass to energy.

Is There a Case for Supporting Animal Traction Research, Policy, and Practice in Rural South Africa? - A Review

Appropriate and efficient technology contributes a great deal to smallholder farmer development. This study uses a systematic literature review to debate whether animal traction research and practice should receive support. Firstly, the smallholder farming system is reviewed to contextualise the discussion and present a state-of-the-art review of animal traction in South Africa. After finding the diminishing use of animal traction among smallholder farming systems, the inquiry probes the causes of the rural development policies, basic education curriculum, and higher learning institutions. The results reveal that the technological needs of smallholder farmers can be met with animal traction. However, a lack of support from policies and learning institutions has contributed to the negative attitude toward animal traction. We further note that new animal traction technology is unlikely to be known to smallholders because of poor information dissemination caused by a weak agricultural extension. After realising the benefits of animal traction, it seems worthwhile to revamp animal traction research and practice for subsistence farmers.

Choice of Tillage Technologies and Impact on Paddy Yield and Food Security in Kilombero Valley, Tanzania

This paper analyses choice of alternative tillage technology options and their impact on paddy yield and food security in Kilombero valley of Morogoro Region, Tanzania. The results show that the choice of any tillage technology option combining hand hoe with animal traction and/or tractor is influenced by characteristics of household head (sex, age and education), access to extension, dependency ratio, land size and livestock assets. As hypothesized the three improved tillage technology options above the hand hoe enhance paddy yield and improve household food security. Factors other than tillage technology options that influence paddy yield and food security are characteristics of household head(sex, age and education), access to extension, use of fertilizer and herbicides, dependency ratio, farm size and livestock assets. The study recommends promotion of tillage technology options involving use of animal traction and yield enhancing inputs. Keywords : Kilombero valley-Tanzania, tillage technology, paddy yield, household food security DOI: 10.7176/JESD/13-7-04 Publication date: April 30 th 2022

Determinants of Market Orientation and Market Participation among Smallholder Rice Farmers in Tanzania

Abstract The study aims to examine the factors that affect smallholder rice farmers’ market orientation tendencies, market participation decision and the extent of rice marketing. A total sample of 352 rice farming households is drawn from the National Panel Survey Data of 2014/2015. A tobit model is used to analyse the factors that influence market orientation tendencies, then a double hurdle model is used to analyze the drivers of the choice and extent of rice marketing by the smallholder rice farmer. Findings reveal that the age of the household head, education level and receiving input vouchers negatively affect market orientation while access to marketing extension services, inorganic fertilizers application, use of animal traction, use of hired-labor, land fragmentation and household wealth positively influence market orientation inclinations among smallholder farmers. Moreover, the quantity harvested and household wealth were found to positively influence both decision and extent of market participation. The age of the head, household size and access to extension services influenced the decision to participate in marketing while distance to the nearest market and market orientation influenced the extent of market participation among smallholder rice farmers in Tanzania. Widening extension services and improving infrastructure supporting marketing are called for.

ANIMAL TRACTION TECHNOLOGY IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS

This paper presents the finding of a about 80% of adult working population of survey on the potential of Animal the State. Thc 1.5 million hectares of land traction technology in Ogun State of Iraq covers mainly the rain of Nigeria. A total of fifteen settlement forests and the derived Savanna. The (Camps) and sixty households were farnicts, who arc mostly small holders and purposely selected and surveyed arc resource-poor, cultivate on the average using a combination of structured 1.2 hectares with traditional farm interview schedule and participatory implements. Farm production is achicvcd. Rural Appraisal technique. Data were almost entirely with the aid of family analysed using descriptive statistics. labour as costos hired labour is Fulani of Kwara State of Nigeria origin prohibitive and there are labour shortage settled in Ogun State with their cattle particularly for land preparation, weeding for over 25 years and are pursuing and harvesting Government effort at sedentary lifestyle as agro-pastoralists. introducing tractor hiring services was a They operate under a relatively secure failure as thc policy could not be sustained tenurial arrangement that allow them to due to high hiring charges, delays in settle and practise arable crop farming. providing the service and unavailability of They prepare the land for planting tractors. This situation gives a compelling using the ridge system, which favours the need for a locally sustainable cheaper use of animal traction. The very cost labour-saving technology. of hired labour represents a major Omotayo and Idisi (1990) reported that the incentive for adoption of animal U$C of animal traction contributed traction technology. The average cattle immensely to farm output and family herd size is 30. All the respondents were income in Northern Nigeria. They are aware of the use of animal traction. technology was not extended to Southern Although none of the respondents had Nigeria because of the perceived fear of using the technology in Ogun State, they tested . Reports (Adu. 1993: Ogungbe nevertheless believed that the technology and Adu, 1998) on the settlement of Fulan can be used in the State. They all agro-pastoralists with their cattle in the indicated readiness to release their humid zone of Nige cattle for training if the technology is to Also, experiences from other parts of West be introduced. The paper discussed Africa with similar ecological and socio animal traction in rural economy, its cultural setting or environment, confirmed potential and constraints.

ANALYZING SMALLHOLDERS AGRICULTURAL COMMERCIALIZATION IN BURKINA FASO. THE ROLE OF TRANSACTION COSTS AND HOUSEHOLDS ASSETS

Promoting smallholders’ agricultural commercialization is frequently identified as a promising strategy to improve agricultural contribution to poverty reduction and economic growth in developing countries. This paper analyses the determinants of agricultural commercialization of smallholder farmers in Burkina Faso, focusing on the role of transaction costs and households’ productive resources. Based on data collected in 2011 at national level from a sample of 1178 farm households, a double hurdle model of market participation and intensity of participation measured by crop commercialization index is estimated. The results indicate that households’ productive resources such as farm size per worker, use of animal traction, quantity of fertilizer used per hectare and access to credit significantly increase the likelihood of households’ market participation and the intensity of commercialization. In addition, transaction costs factors such as quality of rural roads and ownership of communication assets have positive and significant effects on the probability of market participation. Therefore, reducing remoteness-induced transaction costs by unlocking rural areas and improving farm households’ access to productive assets and technologies are required to promote agricultural transformation and commercialization of smallholder farmers.

Credit constraints and cropland allocation decisions in rural Burkina Faso

This paper examined farm households’ cropland allocation decisions under credit constraints in rural Burkina Faso. A fully observed recursive mixed-process model was used to correct for the endogeneity of credit in farm households’ land allocation decisions in a multi-cropping context. Estimating the model with survey data collected in 2011 using the conditional mixed-process estimator, the results showed that credit constraints negatively affect farm households’ decision to allocate land to maize and cotton production in rural Burkina Faso. In contrast, at the expense of maize and cotton, credit constraints encourage farm households to allocate more land to sorghum and millet. The results also showed that socio-demographic characteristics and the use of animal traction significantly determined farm households’ land allocation decisions in rural Burkina Faso.

Centralisation and long-term change in farming regimes: Comparing agricultural practices in Neolithic and Iron Age south-west Germany

This study uses two novel archaeobotanical techniques – crop carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis and functional weed ecology – to determine directly how the intensity of agricultural practice changed from the Neolithic to the Early Iron Age in south-west Germany, with the emergence of fortified hilltop settlements (Fürstensitze or chiefly seats) regarded as the first urban centres in central Europe. The crop isotope and functional weed ecological evidence suggest that surplus cereal production in the Early Iron Age was achieved through sustained use of manure combined with expansion in arable cultivation, both developments that are connected with more widespread use of animal traction. The increased scale of cultivation is broadly apparent across rural as well as fortified hilltop centres in the Early Iron Age, and considerable variability in manuring intensity is consistent with agricultural decision-making at a local level rather than centralised control. Additionally, the more intensive manuring of hulled six-row barley, used in beer production, demonstrates that the political importance of drinking and feasting in Early Iron Age society was reflected in crop husbandry practices. In terms of animal husbandry, faunal isotope data reveal a radical decrease in forest cover, potentially reflecting an expansion in the scale of herding accompanying that of arable cultivation. Site-specific patterning points to a range of herding strategies, from specialised herding of cattle at the Heuneburg to generalised patterns of livestock management at rural sites.

Transforming Technical Know-how in Time and Space. Using the Digital Atlas of Innovations to Understand the Innovation Process of Animal Traction and the Wheel

The paper uses a new research tool, the Digital Atlas of Innovations to re-think the invention and diffusion of wheeled vehicles in Eurasia during the 4th and 3rd millennium BC. It is argued that the diffusion of wheeled vehicles is the result of the local transformation of several technical components which have been known since the Pottery Neolithic. The technical knowledge to combine these components was widely spread and resulted in experimentation with the use of animal traction already in the late 6th millennium. It were, however, the significantly better connected networks which were established during the early 4th millennium, which enabled the innovation-diffusion of the wheel from its presumed zone of origin in the Black Sea area to the Baltic. The same technology (minus the wheels) is also adopted in many other regions, where it is transformed according to local specifications (ploughs, sleds).

The XXI century mountains: sustainable management of mountainous areas based on animal traction

Abstract According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), there are around 300 million working animals worldwide. They play a fundamental role in human livelihoods through their contribution to financial, human and social capital, supporting between 300 and 600 million people globally, particularly in poorer areas, where animal energy represents a huge and extremely important sustainable power resource. Yet their recognition remains largely neglected, with animal traction being largely ignored by decision and policy makers and even by civil society at all levels, which compromises a real development and improvement of this technology as well as animal welfare. On the other hand, a collective ecological and economical consciousness and an increasing awareness of public opinion about the need to reduce the excessive industrialization and mechanization of agriculture and forestry has led some sectors of society to consider the (re)use of animal traction as a valid modern source of energy. Indeed, working animals optimally transform the consumed biomass in energy and natural fertilizer, which avoids soil degradation and contributes to a sustainable management of arable lands, forests and sensitive areas. The need to maintain biodiversity, reduce carbon emissions, encourage self-reliance and reduce consumption of resources also contributes to this trend.

Back to the Future: The Persistence of Horse Skidding in Large Scale Industrial Community Forests in Chihuahua, Mexico

Horse skidding for extracting logwood is characterized as a niche activity in small-scale forestry, limited to small tracts and low volumes, where environmental impacts and aesthetics are concerned, and to operations with no wood-processing facilities. This article documents and analyzes the widespread persistence, current magnitude, and multiple advantages of horse skidding in large-scale industrial community forest enterprises in Chihuahua, Mexico. We extracted data from the logging permit files of 59 communities in the Sierra Tarahumara and conducted semi-structured interviews with community leaders and foresters in 18 communities, 17 random selections, and one purposefully selected case. There are nine communities that can be considered large-scale. Six of them use animal traction for 20%–100% of their volume. All have sawmills integrated with their operations. This includes the El Largo community with a ten-year volume of 3,169,019 m3 extracted from 123,810 ha entirely with horses. Respondents to the interviews report that horse skidding is more cost-effective than mechanized skidding, generates more employment, and has less impact on forests due to reduced carbon emissions. The widespread use of animal traction in large-scale industrial community forestry in Chihuahua demonstrates that horse skidding is not only a niche activity in small-scale forestry. Our data is preliminary, but we suggest that it highlights a need for further assessments of whether animal traction should be part of future efforts towards reduced impact, lower carbon emissions, and socially and economically just forest management.

Évaluation Du Niveau D’efficacité Technique Des Systèmes De Production A Base De Maïs Au Bénin

This study estimates the technical efficiency of a sample of 411 maïzicoles farms in the main production areas in Benin. The study proposed an evaluation of the technical performance of these farms and identified factors of inefficiency by using the model of the production stochastic frontier Cobb-Douglas to assess the levels of efficiencies of systems production involved in the first step. A truncated regression was used in the second stage in order to establish a relationship between the indices of technical efficiency and some exogenous variables or attributes. The results of the first step shows that the index of technical efficiency varies from 37.37 to 96.22% for all systems, and that of the average technical efficiency is 80.35%. The maximum value of technical efficiency of at least 92.75% obtained shows that there are very efficient producers in the study sample as being close to the production frontier. These producers who obtain such a high productivity can be referred to generally improve the productivity of maize production systems in Benin. The results of the second stage indicate that the variables such as access to fertilizers and herbicides, the use of animal traction and tractor, technical guidance and access to credit influence significantly (p <0.05 to p <0.001) the technical efficiency of maize farms surveyed.

Contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods in a district of southeastern Uganda endemic for bovine parasitic diseases: an economic evaluation.

BackgroundA study was conducted in Tororo District in eastern Uganda to assess the socio-economic contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods. The aim of the study was to empirically quantify the economic value of draft cattle thus contributing to understanding the impact of endemic parasitic diseases of cattle on livestock productivity and subsequently household income, labor and food security.MethodA total of 205 draft cattle keeping households (n = 205) were randomly selected and structured household questionnaires were administered, focusing on work oxen use, productivity, inputs and outputs. The data obtained was analyzed using standard statistical methods and used to calculate the gross margin from the draft cattle enterprise. Secondary data were obtained from focus group discussions and key informant interviews and these were analyzed using Bayesian methods.ResultsThe study showed that, apart from being labor saving, the use of animal traction is highly profitable with the gross margin per year from the use of draft cattle amounting to 245 United States dollars per work oxen owning household. The cash obtained from hiring out draft animals was equivalent to nearly a quarter of the average local household’s monetary receipts. It also revealed that endemic bovine parasitic diseases such as trypanosomiasis and tick-borne diseases reduced draft cattle output by 20.9 % and potential household income from the use of draft oxen by 32.2 %.ConclusionThe presence of endemic cattle diseases in rural Uganda is adversely affecting the productivity of draft cattle, which in turn affects household income, labor and ultimately food security. This study highlights the contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods, thus increasing the expected impact of cost-effective control strategies of endemic production limiting livestock diseases in Uganda.

Comparison of the environmental performance of light mechanization and animal traction using a modular LCA approach

Abstract Animal traction has supported humans in most field operations since the origin of agriculture. With the introduction of mechanization, humans gained access to much more work power at similar management costs and were able to significantly increase the productivity and time efficiency of field operations. This achievement completely changed food production systems for all populations able to access such technology. Nowadays, animal traction is mainly used in the developing countries, in specific contexts such as mountainous areas due to the difficulties in using tractors, and within farm tourism in the developed countries. Although the consumption of non-renewable resources is clearly higher in crop production systems that use mechanized traction, tractor traction may involve low consumption of fuel relative to that needed for feed production for equivalent draught animals. Mechanical traction can also facilitate precision agriculture, which uses less fuel, while animals, as living systems, consume resources even when they are not working. This study compared the environmental performance of animal traction with that of machine traction in two scenarios: (I) A forest harvesting system, using as the functional unit the logging operations needed to obtain 50 t market-ready wood and (II) a seedbed preparation system, using as the functional unit the management of 1000 m2 of prepared seedbed. Use of animal traction for these two systems was evaluated on the La Masca farm in Roccaverano, Asti, Northern Italy, while use of machine traction was evaluated using field data on two-wheel tractors performing the operations in similar production systems, converted to the specific functional unit. Owing to the differing properties of mechanical and living systems, it was difficult to establish a reliable standard LCA model of the forestry and food production system. In particular, it proved necessary to include the whole life cycle impacts from tractors and animals. Therefore, we applied a modular LCA approach in which all mechanical implements and animals were accounted as independent modules, a complete life cycle impact assessment phase was performed and results were related to the contribution of the module in the main workflow of the scenario. The final results showed better environmental performance of animal traction both per unit weight of market-ready wood and per unit surface area of prepared seedbed.

Many Renaissances, Many Modernities?

This article discusses Eurocentric history, its focus on the Renaissance and modernity, which continues also in recent global history perspectives. Goody’s argument regarding renaissances in the plural situates Europe in the wider field of Eurasia and deeper in time, going back to the Bronze Age, characterized by plough agriculture, the use of animal traction and urban cultures. Goody’s perspective includes viewing renascences as accelerations and leaps in the circulation of information. Since it is always the trope of the modern that marks Eurocentric claims, unpacking modernity is central to scrutinizing this construction. Goody shows that Europe is a late-comer rather than a forerunner to major strands of modernity. A wider question this account poses is: if Renaissance in the singular produces modernity in the singular, do renaissances in the plural produce modernities in the plural?

Tillage erosion, water erosion and soil quality on cultivated terraces near Xifeng in the Loess Plateau, China

This study sought to contribute to the understanding of soil redistribution by tillage on terraces and the extent and causes of within-field variation in soil properties by examining the spatial distributions of soil redistribution rates, derived using caesium-137, and of total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations, within a ribbon and a shoulder terrace in a yuan area of the Loess Plateau of China. Additional water erosion rate data were obtained for nine other terraces. Water erosion rates on the ribbon terraces were low (<1 kg m−2 yr−1), unless slope tangents exceeded 0·1. However, despite the use of animal traction, high rates of tillage erosion were observed (mean 5·5 kg m−2 yr−1). Soil nitrogen concentrations were related to rates of soil redistribution by tillage on the ribbon terrace examined in detail. In general, higher rates of water erosion (0·5–2·9 kg m−2 yr−1) and lower rates of tillage erosion (mean 1·4 kg m−2 yr−1) were evident on the longer shoulder terraces. On the shoulder terrace examined in detail, soil phosphorus concentrations were related to net rates of soil redistribution. A statistically significant regression relationship between water erosion rates and the USLE length and slope factor was used in conjunction with the simulation of tillage erosion rates to evaluate a range of terrace designs. It is suggested that off-site impacts of erosion could be further reduced by ensuring that the slope tangents are kept below 0·06 and lengths below 30 m, especially on the shoulder terraces. Tillage erosion and the systematic redistribution of soil nutrients could be reduced by modification of the contour-cultivation technique to turn soil in opposing directions in alternate years. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The importance of animal traction and defoliation of pearl millet in a Sahelian agro-pastoral system in the Seno-Bankass, Mali

In the pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) based agro-pastoral systems in the south-eastern part of Mali weeding is either done by hand or using animal (donkeys, cattle) traction. To feed the draught animals farmers are harvesting fodder. One of these comprise stripped millet leaves. To evaluate these millet production systems including draught animals, and defoliation, qualitative interviews were conducted in eight villages in the Seno-Bankass area (1991) and day-to-day activities were monitored in one village (1992). The existing defoliation practice was compared with results obtained from on-station defoliation trials. These showed that the farmers practice of leaving the upper leaves from stalks with grains in milk stage, and defoliating only plants on manured fields, results in an optimal balance between grain yield reduction and fodder quality of the harvested biomass. It is concluded that the use of animal traction for weeding increases efficiency on manured fields only. Furthermore, a reduction in millet grain yield through partial defoliation can be compensated in at least average rainfall years by the benefits of the obtained good quality fodder by either selling the fodder or feeding it to selected animals.

Problems and prospects in the utilization of animal traction in semi-arid west Africa: evidence from Niger

The use of animal draft power for soil tillage has long been a major theme of agricultural development programmes in semi-arid West Africa. The rationale for animal traction utilization ranges from increasing agricultural productivity and income to relieving the drudgery in farm work. Yet, its adoption remains low and localized. Previous research has identified the conditions which favour the adoption of animal traction, but evidence on the potential benefits realizable from its use is mixed. The issue of how to improve the adoption and profitable utilization of animal traction in semi-arid West Africa remains an important topic given that mechanization of agriculture is inevitable. This paper uses data collected from villages in two different agroclimatic zones of Niger to demonstrate the regional variability of potential gains from animal traction. Production functions were estimated to determine the impact of animal traction use on area cultivated, labour input and aggregate yield. Multi-year partial budget streams were also estimated to evaluate the profitability of animal traction at each location. The results show that the use of animal traction did not have any significant impact on area cultivated, but increased the yields of sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and maize ( Zea mays L.) by 12–15%. It increased labour input by 15 man-hha −1 (man hours per hectare) in the dry agroclimatic zone, but reduced it by 50 man-h ha −1 in the wet zone. Rates of return on animal traction investment ranged from −4 to 18% in the dry zone and from 14 to 58% in the wet zone. These results suggest that the impact of animal traction on agricultural production varies by region and depends on a broad set of agroecological and economic conditions. The absence of these conditions in marginal areas strictly limits potential utilization and profitability. On efficiency grounds, it is recommended that animal traction should be promoted only in areas where the climate, soil and economic conditions permit its intensive and profitable utilization.

Characteristic loading of light mouldboard ploughs at slow speeds

A study on four mouldboard ploughs, that are commonly used with animal traction in Kenya, was conducted. Draught, suction and torsion loads were measured and specific draught evaluated in field tests on four sites with typical agricultural soil conditions. Draught and suction are the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction to soil force, respectively, while torsion is the resisting moment about the plough shank. The objective was to quantify these parameters and to study their characteristics under variable conditions at operation, at speeds up to 1.12 m/s and tillage depths between 0 and 150 mm in an attempt to optimize the design, selection and utilization of mouldboard ploughs for animal traction in Kenya. It was found that depth of tillage is the most critical factor, and draught and suction increased significantly with depth while specific draught increased or decreased depending on the soil type. Draught and specific draught increased significantly with speed. The increase in suction with depth probably implies an increased stability in the ploughing operation, while its reduction with speed indicates a potential instability of plough control with varying speeds. Consequently, aiming for steady motion in the utilization of animal traction may aid in the optimization. It was also found that ploughs with a high specific draught (kN/m) are expected to experience higher torsional loads on the shanks. The characteristic draught, specific draught and suction loads of the ploughs were described by quadratic functions in speed and depth of tillage with coefficients of determination ( R 2) ranging from 0.55 to 0.99. A significant difference in the coefficient of variation of draught loads in the three soil types probably implies that optimal duration for use of animal traction in tillage should be dependent on soil type.