US Schools Of Pharmacy Research Articles

Teaching Homeopathy in U.S. Pharmacy Schools.

Objectives: Pharmacists often advise patients on the use of over-the counter (OTC) medications. A class of medications that is growing in popularity is homeopathic products. Little is known about student pharmacist education about homeopathy. The objectives of this study were to: 1) describe homeopathic topics being taught in pharmacy schools and 2) evaluate faculty views about pharmacists' roles in counseling patients about homeopathic products. Method: An explanatory sequential mixed methods approach was used. Online surveys were distributed to 3,300 pharmacy practice faculty members representing all schools accredited in the US. Frequencies were calculated to describe faculty characteristics and their responses. Moreover, 18 interviews of faculty involved with teaching homeopathy were conducted to learn about homeopathy teaching and expectations about roles of pharmacists in counseling patients. Results: Survey data were collected from 365 respondents. Over half (84 of 137) of the responding pharmacy schools reported teaching homeopathy to pharmacy students. In addition, the responses from most of the interviewed faculty were summarized into two themes which emphasized that pharmacists should be knowledgeable and able to counsel patients effectively to ensure they benefit from taking homeopathic products. Conclusion: Over half of US pharmacy schools are teaching students about homeopathy topics. Further, there was support for pharmacists being able to counsel effectively about homeopathic products.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on US Pharmacy Academia Per Perspectives of Faculty and Administrators

ObjectiveThe COVID-19 pandemic has markedly affected academic and administrative facets of pharmacy education. However, to date, no study has systematically summarized pandemic-related changes at pharmacy schools across the United States. This study aimed to evaluate US pharmacy school faculty and administrators’ perspectives on the pandemic’s impact on pharmacy academia. MethodsA web-based survey was sent to US pharmacy school faculty and administrators in August 2020. The survey included questions assessing the pandemic’s impact on the faculty’s teaching, the school’s financial status, administrative aspects, and mental well-being of faculty and administrators. Descriptive statistics and 1-sample Z tests were used for conducting statistical analyses. ResultsThe survey was sent to 6177 individuals, of whom 1068 participated (17.3% response rate). In total, 931 respondents (759 faculty and 172 administrators) completed the entire survey. Both faculty and administrators experienced increased workload while their mental health and job satisfaction declined. Faculty’s teaching satisfaction, research productivity, and service activity worsened. Administrators identified decreases in revenue sources and increases in expenses associated with the pandemic. Administrators also indicated the negative impact of the pandemic on an array of administrative and academic aspects within their pharmacy schools. The qualitative analysis identified several overlapping themes highlighting the negative effects of the pandemic on the faculty’s teaching. ConclusionPresent findings indicate the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on a variety of academic and administrative aspects at US pharmacy schools. These findings could provide useful information to stakeholders in pharmacy academia.

Qualitative Analysis of Pre and Postpromotion/Tenure Review Processes Employed by US Pharmacy Schools

ObjectivePolicies related to prepromotion/tenure reviews and postpromotion/tenure reviews are critical to faculty advancement and retention. The objective of this study is to describe the utilization, timing, and application of such policies as described within promotion and/or tenure documents from US colleges/schools of pharmacy. MethodsPT documents were collected from internet searches and/or contact with administrators at each institution. Qualitative content analysis was used to systematically review policies related to pre and postpromotion/tenure reviews. Policies were reviewed for required vs optional status, timing, possible outcomes, and other characteristics. ResultsPT documents were analyzed from 121 (85%) colleges/schools. Of these, 26% included policies for prepromotion review of nontenure-track faculty, while 45% included pretenure reviews for tenure-track faculty. The majority of prereviews were required (65% and 91%, respectively) and conducted after 3 years in rank on average. Only 22 (18%) included postpromotion/tenure reviews, with most (17, 77%) conducting reviews after a prespecified time in advanced rank (mean 3.9 years). Potential negative consequences of postpromotion/tenure reviews were more frequently described than potential rewards. ConclusionThis analysis of promotion and/or tenure documents revealed that pre/posttenure reviews were more commonly employed than pre/postpromotion reviews. Documents most frequently described potential negative consequences that may result from unsatisfactory postpromotion/tenure reviews. Academic leaders should consider the implications of these trends within their own institutions and how their own policies may be improved to create clearly articulated, fair, and parallel processes for both tenure-track and nontenure-track faculty.

Assessing stress among pharmacy faculty at five schools: Preliminary lessons learned and coping strategies recommended

Background: The 2016 ACPE Standards note that Pharm.D. programmes should ensure that “assessments include measurements of perceived stress in faculty, staff, and students and an evaluation of stress’ potential for a negative impact on programmatic outcomes and morale.” This study examines the perceptions of stress and satisfaction among pharmacy faculty and identifies their primary ways to cope with stress using a pilot survey instrument Scale To Recognize and Evaluate Stress and Satisfaction (STRESS). Methods: A PubMed literature search was conducted utilising key search terms: “faculty stress or burnout” and “stress survey”. A draft survey was assessed by 20 experts resulting a 10-question online survey (STRESS) that was administered across five US pharmacy schools. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse data. Results: The 117 faculty who completed the survey consisted of 55% females, 73% pharmacy practice department, and 36% assistant professor rank. When asked to rate stress levels on a scale of 1 (low stress) to 5 (high stress), the mean was 3.54, SD 0.94. The item with the highest stress rating was “feeling that I have too heavy a workload” (mean 3.63, SD 1.22), and 34% felt fatigued and/or overwhelmed on most days/daily. Conclusion: Preliminary findings can serve for stress reduction strategies and as indicators for targeted wellness initiatives.

Drug Information Curriculum and Instructional Methods: Updated Survey of US Pharmacy Schools

Drug Information Curriculum and Instructional Methods: Updated Survey of US Pharmacy Schools

Analysis of Teaching-Related Criteria Within Promotion and Tenure Documents from US Pharmacy Schools

ObjectiveTo describe teaching-related criteria within promotion and tenure (PT) guidance documents from US-based colleges/schools of pharmacy. MethodsPT guidance documents were retrieved from college/school websites or via electronic mail. Institutional characteristics were compiled using available online data. Using qualitative content analysis, a systematic review of PT guidance documents was conducted to identify how teaching and teaching excellence were considered in decision of promotion and/or tenure at each institution. ResultsPT guidance documents were analyzed from 121 (85%) colleges/schools of pharmacy. Of these, 40% included a requirement that faculty must achieve excellence in teaching for promotion and/or tenure, though excellence was infrequently defined (14% of colleges/schools). Criteria specific to didactic teaching were most frequently included (94% of institutions). Criteria specific to experiential (50%), graduate student (48%), postgraduate (41%), and interprofessional (13%) teaching were less frequently included. Institutions frequently required student (58%) and peer (50%) evaluations of teaching to be considered in PT decisions. Most institutions acknowledged many teaching accomplishments as examples indicating teaching success rather than strictly requiring specific criteria to be fulfilled. ConclusionTeaching-related criteria within PT criteria of colleges/schools of pharmacy often lack clear guidance regarding quantitative or qualitative requirements for advancement. This lack of clearly specified requirements may result in faculty members’ inability to self-assess for readiness for promotion and inconsistent application of criteria in PT decisions by review committees and administrators.

The role of a pharmacy residency program in global health: Establishing pediatric clinical pharmacy services in a Malawian hospital

To describe the establishment of pediatric clinical pharmacy services in a Malawian hospital as part of a pharmacy residency program's engagement in global health. While pharmacy is expanding its role in global health through the introduction of international advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) rotations at US schools of pharmacy, international experiences for pharmacy residents are currently very limited. Such programs are advantageous for pharmacists planning for a career in public or global health, and there is also great opportunity for clinical pharmacists to work with international partners for professional development and to help advance pharmacy practice. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Eshelman School of Pharmacy recently expanded its international APPE rotation in Malawi into the postgraduate training space through creation of a pediatric pharmacy residency training program, with the specific aim of working with partners in Malawi to introduce pediatric pharmacy services at Kamuzu Central Hospital. As this was the first time there was a pharmacist involved in patient care on the pediatric wards, the focus for the participating pharmacy resident was on establishing a positive relationship with the medical team through providing high-quality collaborative patient care for the pediatric population. In addition to working to establish pediatric clinical pharmacy services, the resident further contributed to sustainable improvements in pediatric patient care by identifying areas for quality improvement. We discuss several considerations for the successful implementation of international experiences and their impact on participating residents. Pharmacy has an opportunity to build on the success of international APPE rotations and expand postgraduate offerings. Through collaboration with other institutions already involved in global health and identifying international rotation sites, residency programs across the country can create similarly beneficial global health experiences for their pharmacy residents.

Trends in gender and race/ethnicity of PharmD students and faculty in US pharmacy schools

IntroductionThis study described and compared trends in the distribution of gender and race/ethnicity for doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students and faculty in schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States. MethodsInstitution-level gender (male and female) and racial/ethnic (White, Black/African American, Hispanic/Latino) data for full-time faculty were obtained from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy institutional database for 2009–2019. PharmD students' demographic data during the same study period were collected separately for applications, enrollments, and degrees conferred. Generalized linear regression models were applied to examine trends in proportion of PharmD students and faculty distribution in subgroups of different gender and race/ethnicity at P < .05. All analyses were conducted using SAS, version 9.4 (SAS Institute). ResultsSignificantly increasing trends in female full-time faculty, PharmD applications, and enrollments were observed; however, the trend in female PharmD degrees conferred remained stable from 2009 to 2019. While the trends in proportion of PharmD applications, enrollments, and degrees conferred for Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino students increased significantly, declines and stable trends in the proportion of Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino faculty, respectively, were identified during the same time. ConclusionsUpward trends in proportions of Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino PharmD applications, enrollments, and degrees conferred were not mirrored by trends in proportions of underrepresented faculty. Implementation of effective faculty diversity and inclusion strategies is warranted to better meet the educational needs of PharmD students.

Analysis of Research and Scholarship Criteria Within Promotion and Tenure Documents of US Pharmacy Schools

Objective. To describe criteria for evaluating faculty scholarship within the promotion and tenure guidance documents of US schools and colleges of pharmacy.Methods. Promotion and tenure documents were obtained from the websites of US pharmacy schools or requested via electronic mail, and institutional characteristics were collected from publicly available online data. A qualitative content analysis was conducted to systematically catalogue document characteristics and criteria for promotion and tenure.Results. Promotion and tenure guidance documents from 121 (85%) of 142 pharmacy schools were analyzed. Institutions were 55% public and equally distributed across Carnegie institutional classifications as well as geographic and extramural funding stratifications. Publications (94%) and grants and contracts (87%) were the most frequently included criteria for faculty advancement. More than 50% of schools recognized the criteria within promotion and tenure guidance documents but did not explicitly require faculty to achieve them before receiving promotion and/or tenure. For institutions that required publications for advancement, the most frequently required criterion was publication in peer-reviewed journals (47%). Few schools (22%) documented a specific number of required publications.Conclusion. This analysis provides a comprehensive review of scholarship criteria in academic pharmacy promotion and tenure guidance documents. There was wide variability among scholarship criteria, and documents often lacked specific language defining scholarship requirements. As a result, faculty may find the documents less helpful for self-assessment and preparation toward promotion and/or tenure. These benchmark data can assist pharmacy faculty and administrators in developing and revising promotion and tenure guidance documents to include clear criteria and better align with peer institutions.

Trends in Pharmacy College Admission Test Requirements and Utilization Across Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

Objective. To identify national trends among US pharmacy schools and colleges in their requirements for the Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) and underlying rationales for not requiring pharmacy school applicants to take it.Methods. An electronic survey regarding the following was sent to all US pharmacy programs: current and future PCAT requirements for applicants, use of the PCAT or other means to assess applicants' written communication skills, use of unofficial PCAT scores, and, if applicable, the rationale for not requiring applicants to submit PCAT scores. Data analysis was performed using Excel.Results. One hundred five (73%) of 144 schools and colleges of pharmacy responded to the survey. Twelve institutions discontinued the PCAT requirement between the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 admissions cycles. The most commonly selected reason for discontinuation was a desire to increase pharmacy applications by reducing admission barriers. Pharmacy schools nationwide had concerns regarding high PCAT registration fees. The majority of pharmacy programs that used PCAT scores in their application process indicated that they always, often, or sometimes invited applicants for an interview before they had received the applicant's official PCAT scores. The majority of pharmacy programs considered applicants' PCAT writing score in making their admissions decisions. Other methods used included onsite essays and personal statements.Conclusion. At the time of this study the majority of US pharmacy schools required applicants to submit the PCAT scores before being considered for admission to pharmacy school; however, the use of this examination has declined nationally.

Assessment of Volunteer Preceptors at Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy in the United States

Objective. To identify the way colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States assess the performance of volunteer preceptors who precept students in advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs).Methods. In the summer and fall semesters of 2018, directors of experiential education were invited to complete an online, self-administered questionnaire that included questions dealing with assessment of APPE volunteer preceptors related to promotion and reappointment procedures, abilities and attributes assessed, methods of assessment, and frequency of conducting such assessments. Several attempts were made via email and phone to encourage participation.Results. Eighty-one of 132 (61.4%) fully accredited programs responded with all but one reporting that they evaluated the performance of APPE volunteer preceptors. Forty-one of these 80 (51.3%) indicated that preceptors cannot be promoted in rank, while 47 (58.8%) had a process for preceptor reappointment. The most commonly assessed preceptor abilities and attributes were accessibility, ability to provide feedback to students, communication skills, and professional demeanor. The most reported assessment strategies were summative student evaluations and on-site evaluation of the preceptor by college or school personnel. The frequency of assessments varied based on the assessment method the institution used.Conclusion. Assessment of APPE volunteer preceptors was an integral component of the quality assurance process at almost all responding US pharmacy colleges and schools. The institutions evaluated various preceptor abilities and attributes and used multiple assessment strategies. Findings from this study may help programs review their existing assessment practices, implement new ones, and help to standardize preceptor assessment.

Inclusion of Health Disparities, Cultural Competence, and Health Literacy Content in US and Canadian Pharmacy Curriculums

Objective. To determine how US and Canadian pharmacy schools include content related to health disparities and cultural competence and health literacy in curriculum as well as to review assessment practices.Methods. A cross-sectional survey was distributed to 143 accredited and candidate-status pharmacy programs in the United States and 10 in Canada in three phases. Statistical analysis was performed to assess inter-institutional variability and relationships between institutional characteristics and survey results.Results. After stratification by institutional characteristics, no significant differences were found between the 72 (50%) responding institutions in the United States and the eight (80%) in Canada. A core group of faculty typically taught health disparities and cultural competence content and/or health literacy. Health disparities and cultural competence was primarily taught in multiple courses across multiple years in the pre-APPE curriculum. While health literacy was primarily taught in multiple courses in one year in the pre-APPE curriculum in Canada (75.0%), delivery of health literacy was more varied in the United States, including in a single course (20.0%), multiple courses in one year (17.1%), and multiple courses in multiple years (48.6%). Health disparities and cultural competence and health literacy was mostly taught at the introduction or reinforcement level. Active-learning approaches were mostly used in the United States, whereas in Canada active learning was more frequently used in teaching health literacy (62.5%) than health disparities and cultural competence (37.5%). Few institutions reported providing professional preceptor development.Conclusion. The majority of responding pharmacy schools in the United States and Canada include content on health disparities and cultural competence content and health literacy to varying degrees; however, less is required and implemented within experiential programs and the co-curriculum. Opportunities remain to expand and apply information on health disparities and cultural competence content and health literacy content, particularly outside the didactic curriculum, as well as to identify barriers for integration.

Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences in Pharmacogenomics Offered by US Pharmacy Programs

Objective. To characterize advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics at schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States.Methods. This was a cross-sectional, multicenter, observational study of pharmacogenomics APPEs at US pharmacy schools. Directors of experiential education at 146 accredited schools of pharmacy were contacted by phone and asked if their school offered a pharmacogenomics APPE. The preceptors of pharmacogenomics APPEs identified by this phone screen were sent an email with a link to an online survey that asked about their APPE offerings.Results. Of the 142 schools of pharmacy that were successfully reached via phone, 40 (28%) offered an APPE with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics. Thirty unique APPEs with pharmacogenomics as a primary focus were identified. The total number of preceptors involved in the pharmacogenomics APPEs was 33: 19 (58%) faculty preceptors and 14 (42%) non-faculty preceptors. Twenty-three of the 30 pharmacogenomics APPEs completed the survey (77% response rate). The APPE sites were diverse and included academic medical centers, community health systems, pharmacogenomic testing laboratories, and schools of pharmacy. Each pharmacogenomics APPE accommodated an average of six students per year. The APPE activities varied across sites.Conclusion. Only a small number of US pharmacy schools offer an APPE with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics. These rotations are diverse in scope and precepted by faculty or non-faculty pharmacists. The Academy should pursue opportunities to increase experiential education in pharmacogenomics.

Placement and Integration of Pathophysiology, Anatomy, and Physiology Within the Doctor of Pharmacy Curriculum

Objective. To examine the placement of pathophysiology, anatomy, and physiology within the curricula of US pharmacy schools and colleges for variations in program length, prerequisites, institution type, geographic region, and establishment date.Methods. The websites of 146 pharmacy programs were examined for information related to pathophysiology, anatomy, and physiology courses and instruction. Eight programs listed uninterpretable or incomplete website data and were excluded, producing a final sample size of 138 programs. Data were analyzed to determine differences in curricular placement, credit hours, and integration.Results. The majority (65.3%) of pathophysiology courses were incorporated into the curriculum by integration, while some (14.5%) had both stand-alone and integrated pathophysiology courses. The remaining programs (20.2%) had stand-alone pathophysiology courses only. Of those with stand-alone pathophysiology courses, the mean number of credit hours was 5. Most programs (76.1%) required anatomy and/or physiology as a prerequisite or as part of the professional program, with significantly more public programs than private programs requiring it as a prerequisite (77.9% vs 48.6%).Conclusion. Pathophysiology is taught in diverse formats throughout US pharmacy schools, with the only consensus among programs being that it belongs in the professional curriculum. While the majority of programs teach pathophysiology as an integrated course, stand-alone courses are also common. There is also great diversity in the type of instruction used in anatomy and physiology courses. While every program requires students to complete anatomy and physiology courses, these are commonly taught as part of the professional curriculum or are prerequisites. Overall, there are few significant differences in the instruction of these subjects among US pharmacy schools.

Years of Rampant Expansion Have Imposed Darwinian Survival-of-the-Fittest Conditions on US Pharmacy Schools

The number of applicants to US pharmacy schools has been declining since 2013, leading to a national enrollment crisis. Enrollment challenges threaten the viability of many pharmacy programs. Some schools are better equipped than others to confront the risk of having to downsize or close, creating survival-of-the-fittest conditions. Four potential risk factors have been identified based on how applicants might perceive the comparable value of respective programs. Schools with lower risk are public, established before 2000, located within an academic health center, and traditional (ie, four-year) programs. The Academy cannot sustain more than 140 schools much longer. Market forces are establishing a new equilibrium between the number of graduates and the availability of pharmacist jobs. As more jobs become available, more applicants will apply. Until then, the fittest Doctor of Pharmacy programs will thrive, while others might have to downsize to survive, and the weakest will be at risk of extinction.

Opioid-Related Education Provided by Continuing Education Divisions at US Pharmacy Schools

Objective. To quantify the number and type of new opioid-related continuing pharmacy education (CPE) activities offered by continuing education divisions (CEDs) at US schools and colleges of pharmacy from 2015 through 2018, and to determine the number of pharmacists who completed opioid-related CPE activities. Methods. Data was derived from the database of CPE activities maintained by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), which is the sole accreditation agency for all providers of CPE, including pharmacy schools. Data were filtered to include only pharmacy school CPE providers. A search for six keywords (opiates, opioids, pain, pain management, drug overdose, and opioid antagonist) was conducted for the years 2015-2018. The data extracted included title of the CPE activity, contact hours, activity type, activity format, and the number of pharmacists who participated in the activity. Descriptive statistics were used. A content analysis of activity titles was performed. Results. Overall, the CEDs of US schools and colleges of pharmacy delivered 20.3% of all ACPE-approved opioid-related CPE activities from 2015-2018. A total of 1,237 unique opioid-related CPE activities were identified. The number of new CPE activities increased from 249 in 2015 to 297 in 2016 to 349 in 2017, then decreased to 342 in 2018. These activities reached 149,373 pharmacists and were most commonly affiliated with the following keywords: opioids (34.8%) and pain management (30.2%). Conclusion. The opioid epidemic creates an opportunity for pharmacists to increase their role in public health, but education and training are necessary. The study findings indicate that many pharmacists participate in opioid-related CPE provided by ACPE-accredited CEDs of pharmacy schools. This number is likely to increase as a growing number of states are beginning to require opioid-related CPE for pharmacist license renewal.

GPAs, PCATs, and Coupons: Wilting Quality in Pharmacy School Admissions and the Impact on Pharmacy Faculty.

The number of available seats in US pharmacy schools has reached unprecedented numbers as applications are on the decline. A combination of forces signals that admissions to pharmacy school are becoming less selective. The conflict of balancing a need to fill the incoming class while maintaining selectivity is a growing problem in pharmacy education. Faculty may notice changes in the student quality and ultimately, program and graduate quality. Pressure from administration hinders faculty governance with negative consequences that impact faculty morale and the profession as a whole. Maintaining a firm position in the face of reduced applications is challenging but necessary if we are to protect the students we seek to support as faculty and stewards of the pharmacy profession. Faculty governance is at risk as pressure exists to admit less-prepared students into programs. Faculty must advocate for responsible leadership by initiating dialogue on admissions and selectivity. Furthermore, faculty mentorship programs need a new level of discussion that includes analysis and understanding of this paradigm in pharmacy academia.

Global Health Learning Outcomes in Pharmacy Students Completing International Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective. To examine the global health learning outcomes of Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students from three US schools who participated in international advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs). Methods. A mixed-methods, prospective study was used to assess fourth-year PharmD students at three US pharmacy schools who participated in an international APPE during the 2017-2018 academic year and a matched cohort (control group) of PharmD students who did not participate in an international APPE. To evaluate students' self-perceived growth in the Consortium of Universities for Global Health (CUGH) competencies, all students completed a 13-item retrospective pre-post instrument using a five-point Likert scale. The students who had completed an international APPE were invited to participate in a focus group (N=22). Paired and independent t tests and multiple linear regression were used to analyze data. Qualitative open-ended questions and focus group data were mapped to knowledge, skills, and attitudes themes. Results. The students who completed an international APPE (N=81) showed significantly more growth in CUGH competencies than students who did not (mean improvement in total score of 10.3 [7.0] vs 2.4 [6.0]). International APPE participation was the only significant predictor of growth in CUGH competencies. The international APPE students reported improvements in cultural awareness and appreciation, communication skills, problem-solving skills, adaptability, self-awareness, personal and professional outlook, and global health perspective. Conclusion. Pharmacy students' participation in international APPEs led to significant improvement in all CUGH competencies. The CUGH competency framework appears to be a suitable instrument to assess pharmacy students' global health learning outcomes.

The Status and Adequacy of Preceptor Orientation and Development Programs in US Pharmacy Schools

Objective. To identify current preceptor orientation and development programs at US colleges and schools of pharmacy and propose future initiatives for preceptor programs. Methods. An anonymous 28-item survey was administered in January 2017 to 128 experiential education personnel at accredited US schools and colleges of pharmacy. Data from completed survey instruments were tabulated and qualitative responses to open-ended questions were examined using thematic analysis. Results. Eighty-five experiential education administrators participated in the survey (response rate=67%). Most preceptor orientation programs met the majority of requirements as outlined within the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education's Standard 20.3, although only 42% of programs mandated preceptor orientation prior to student placement. Two-thirds of respondents offered annual, live preceptor development, and 75% of programs used commercially available online products. Nearly 40% of respondents collaborated with other schools or professional organizations to offer preceptor training. Only 29% of programs had specific requirements for pharmacists to maintain their active preceptor status. Seventy percent of respondents reported spending over $2500 and 39% over $5000 annually on preceptor development. Programs with the highest monetary investment (>$10,000/year) in preceptor development offered multiple venues (live and online) for preceptor training. Programs with significant personnel commitment (≥0.5 FTE devoted to preceptor development) frequently had dedicated site visitors. Conclusion. Preceptor orientation programs at US schools of pharmacy are generally similar, but development programs vary significantly across the Academy. Highly invested programs featured live and online training or site visitors who provided individualized feedback or training. Future studies should explore the cost-effectiveness of program options and their impact on preceptor learning and behaviors.

Student organization prevalence and structures in US schools of pharmacy

IntroductionAccreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) Standards 2016 emphasize co-curricular programming to complement formal curriculums. Programming engagement through student pharmacist organizations is foundational to many schools' co-curriculum. Adequate funding, membership engagement, and governance structures are vital factors that, in turn, help these groups thrive over time. However, minimal literature exists depicting financial support, governance, and membership engagement for benchmarking purposes. The current study's objective was to examine these parameters at a national level among schools of pharmacy.Methods: Student affairs personnel identified through the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Student Services Special Interest Group received a link to an anonymous Qualtrics survey. Survey data comparing programs were analyzed descriptively and via t-test (continuous data) and Fisher's exact test (nominal data) using Graph Pad Prism 8. ResultsSeventy-three schools completed the survey. The majority (53%) were public institutions. Limiting the number of organizations allowed on campus occurred at 39.7% of schools. Regarding formation/funding policies, 75% published policies for organization formation, and 53% published policies for financial support. Use of an “umbrella” format for governance was present in 36% of responding schools. The average number of organizations per school was 11, conducting an average of 10.4 chapter meetings/month. The percent of enrolled students on average belonging to a given organization ranged from 2.2% to over 40%. Ninety-three percent reported that organizations assist in the inculcation of professionalism among student pharmacists. ConclusionsPharmacy schools are inconsistent in their approach to student organization formation, funding policies, and governance.