US Elementary Schools Research Articles

Between- and within-child level associations between externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in a nationally representative sample of US elementary school children.

Both transactional and common etiological models have been proposed as explanations of why externalizing behavior problems (EBP) and internalizing behavior problems (IBP) co-occur in children. Yet little research has empirically evaluated these competing theoretical explanations. We examined whether EBP and IBP are transactionally related at the within-child level while also identifying antecedents commonly associated with between-child differences in underlying stability of both EBP and IBP across elementary school. We analyzed a nationally representative and longitudinal sample of US schoolchildren (N = 7,326; 51% male) using random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM). We used teacher ratings of EBP and IBP as annually assessed from the spring of kindergarten (Mage = 6.12 years) through the spring of 5th grade (Mage = 11.09 years). Early childhood antecedents included child internal (i.e. inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and language/literacy) and external factors (i.e. parental warmth, harsh parenting, parenting stress, and maternal depressive symptoms). We found little evidence for within-child, transactional relations between EBP and IBP. Both types of behavior problems instead were substantially associated at the between-child level. Inhibitory control was the strongest common antecedent that explained this longitudinal overlap. Cognitive flexibility, working memory, language/literacy skills, and maternal depression contributed specifically to the stability of IBP. Measures of parenting were specific to the stability of EBP. Common etiological factors rather than transactional relations better explain the co-occurrence of EBP and IBP during elementary school. Inhibitory control is a promising target of early intervention efforts for schoolchildren at risk of displaying both EBP and IBP.

Improving US Elementary School Reading Comprehension through Knowledge Acquisition and Transformation

Improving US Elementary School Reading Comprehension through Knowledge Acquisition and Transformation

The Human Side of Accountability: Dilemmas of Reaching All Learners

This portraiture-informed study by Taeyeon Kim challenges the dominant discourse of accountability, which often focuses on high-stakes policies at the expense of relational aspects of accountability in schools. Building on working theories of accountability, humanizing leadership, and paradox theory, Kim theorizes the “human side of accountability,” where leaders simultaneously address the tensions of multiple demands and implement policy mandates in ways that attempt to mitigate their unintended harm to students, particularly minoritized students. Using interviews, shadowing, photo-elicited focus groups, and artifacts generated from a yearlong qualitative study of three US elementary school principals, Kim explores how school principals make meaning of accountability in their daily practices and how they address dilemmas created by competing demands. The analysis suggests that leaders’ enactment of accountability can be understood as a daily balancing act of promoting equity to provide missing and overlooked support in policy man dates. This article thus challenges existing policy approaches and provides strategies for rethinking how processes of accountability can be imagined in school settings.

Predicting Cyberbullying Perpetration in US Elementary School Children.

Cyberbullying has emerged as a societal issue, and the majority of the research examining cyberbullying perpetration samples adolescent and/or emerging adult populations. A paucity of empirical attention has focused on young children (aged 8-10) regarding their cyberbullying frequency and predictors. The current study sampled 142 US youth aged 8-10 years and assessed their cyberbullying perpetration rate and cellular phone ownership. Results indicated that (a) older participants were more likely to cyberbully than their younger peers; (b) higher rates of cyberbullying were found for youth who already owned a cellular phone; and (c) an interaction between participant age and cellular phone ownership was found, suggesting that cyberbullying was highest for only the 10-year-old group who owned a cellular phone. These findings have implications for (a) parents, school administrators, health care providers, and anyone else interested in better understanding the predictors of cyberbullying perpetration; (b) intervention specialists focused on reducing cyberbullying in youth; and (c) a researcher interested in understanding the basic theoretical underpinnings of cyberbullying. Based on these findings, we recommend that (a) cyberbullying interventions be administered to youth as early as elementary school; (b) parents/guardians carefully consider the positive and negative consequences of youth cellular phone usage; and (c) increased communication between youth and parents/guardians concerning youth cellular phone activities.

Teachers' and Black students' views on the incorporation of African American children's literature in an after‐school book club: collaborative and culturally based learning

AbstractIt has been suggested that culturally relevant literature can be beneficial to elementary school students' learning. Yet, less research has focused on African American students' perspectives of that literature, including aspects of that engagement that may benefit their learning. Therefore, the main goal centred on US elementary school students' perspectives of African American children's literature in an after‐school book club. There were 15 second‐ and third‐grade African American students from a low‐income area who participated in the 6‐week book club. The book club sessions were recorded, student artefacts were collected and a focus group was held with students. Following the book club, there were two classroom teachers interviewed along with an after‐school teacher facilitator. Based on the analysis, four themes were found. These focused on increased reading motivation, the role of cultural and personal associations with literature for comprehending, engagement in communal learning and improved access to culturally relevant texts. The results extend previous research on the importance of social collaboration and culturally relevant books to promote motivation and reading comprehension among learners and highlight the value of collaborative and culturally based learning for Black children in the American context.

Factors Predictive of Being Bullies or Victims of Bullies in US Elementary Schools.

We analyzed a population-representative cohort (N=13,611; Mage at kindergarten, first, and second grade = 67.5, 79.5, and 91.5 months, respectively) to identify kindergarten to second grade factors predictive of being bullies or victims during third to fifth grade. We did so by estimating a block recursive structural equation model (SEM) with three sets of predictors. These were: (a) individual and school socio-demographics; (b) family distress and harsh parenting; and (c) individual behavior and achievement. Relations between each of the included variables and the bullying outcomes were simultaneously estimated within the SEM. Thus, each variable served as a control for estimating the effects of the other variables. We used robust standard errors to account for student clustering within schools. Results indicated that externalizing problem behavior strongly predicted being a bully ([ES] = .56, p<.001) and a victim (ES=.29, p<.001). We observed a negative relation between being Hispanic and being a victim (ES = -.10, p<.001) and a positive relation between being Black and being a bully (ES = .11, p<.001). We also observed statistically significant relations between a family's socioeconomic status and being a bully (ES = -.08, p<.001) as well as school poverty and being a victim (ES = .07, p<.001). The results advance the field's limited understanding of risk and protective factors for bullying perpetration or victimization during elementary school and provide additional empirical support for assisting young children already exhibiting externalizing problem behaviors.

Hyper-palatable foods in elementary school lunches: Availability and contributing factors in a national sample of US public schools.

School cafeterias are a major point of influence for child nutrition. United States federal legislation requires the presence of important nutrients in school meals. However, legislation overlooks the potential presence of hyper-palatable foods in school lunches, a hypothesized factor that may influence children's eating behavior and obesity risk. The study sought to 1) quantify the prevalence of hyper-palatable foods (HPF) served in US elementary school lunches; and 2) determine whether food hyper-palatability varied based on school geographic region (East/Central/West), urbanicity (urban/micropolitan/rural), or meal item (entrée/side/fruit or vegetable). Lunch menu data (N = 18 menus; N = 1160 total foods) were collected from a sample of six states that represented geographic regions of the United States (Eastern/Central/Western; Northern/Southern) and that had variability in urbanicity (urban, micropolitan, and rural) within each state. A standardized definition from Fazzino et al (2019) was used to identify HPF in lunch menus. HPF comprised almost half of foods in school lunches (M = 47%; SD = 5%). Compared to fruit/vegetable items, entrées were >23 times more likely to be hyper-palatable and side dishes were >13 times more likely to be hyper-palatable (p values < .001). Geographic region and urbanicity were not significantly associated with food item hyper-palatability (p values >.05). The majority of entrée and side items contained meat/meat alternatives and/or grains and likely aligned with the US federal reimbursable meal components of meat/meat alternatives and/or grains. HPF comprised almost half of foods offered in elementary school lunches. Entrées and side items were most likely to be hyper-palatable. US school lunches may be a key point of regular exposure to HPF among young children, a risk factor that may elevate child obesity risk. Public policy regulating HPF in school meals may be needed to protect children's health.

“Navigating Uncharted Waters”: New Teacher Mentoring and Induction

Teacher attrition, a startling problem internationally, can be fruitfully disrupted with comprehensive mentoring/ induction in place. The purpose of this study was to describe a division-wide, systems-embedded mentoring/ induction program in three US elementary schools that determined key features/practices influencing experience during a crisis. Research questions were: How do elementary practitioners involved in a mentoring/induction program describe it? What was the perceived effect of COVID-19 on this program? Support–Accessibility–Collaboration (SAC) provided leverage as program features for new teacher professional development and retention. A theoretical framework, SAC adds to school-based mentoring research by offering an integration of key elements in the literature. In 2021, mentor teachers, principals, and new teachers in northeast Virginia completed a demographics survey and participated in interviews. The analyzed data produced seven specific findings and three program features influencing mentoring quality and stakeholders’ experience. The issue of equity in mentoring contexts is raised. As concluded, mentoring proved problematic, with variability in quality. Even in an emergency, there was movement toward comprehensive approaches that support novices.

Parental Involvement in United States of America’s Schools from the Perspective of Parents from Saudi Arabia

The more a teacher knows about the students in his or her classroom, the more likely he or she will be able to relate to the student and facilitate a positive learning experience. When teachers have students from foreign countries, it becomes even more important for teachers to know something about the country of the student’s origin, composition of the family, the values of the family, and other relevant components of the student’s culture. The purpose of the present study is to learn how parents from Saudi who have children attending schools in the United States of America perceive the school experiences of their children, and to learn how they might become involved to support the teacher and help them better understand Saudi culture. a focus group was conducted to learn more about how much involvement the parents have and what kind of barriers they face to get involved in U.S. schools. The main purpose for this study was to answer the question “What are the parental involvement strategies that can be used by Saudi parents to introduce Saudi culture into the US elementary schools?”. The main goal was to know how Saudi students get more involved in American schools. A focus group was conducted with Saudi students’ is weak, and they don’t prefer to impose it. Also due to the religion factor associated to Saudi culture it is hard for them get involved in American school’s culture. mothers who live in the US to answer this question from their perspective. Mothers agreed that the involvement of Saudi culture in American school

A Gendered and Racialized Educational Hierarchy: Disparities in Elementary School Teachers’ Perceptions of Student Behavior

AbstractThis paper uses an intersectional framework to account for the degree to which race, when intersecting gender, relates to teachers’ evaluations of US elementary school children over time. Drawing on longitudinal data from the 2011 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten cohort, we employ growth curve modeling to study descriptive trends in teacher perceptions of student behavior from kindergarten through fifth grade. We find that educators’ perceptions of White, Asian American, and Latinx girls increase over time, while their perceptions of Black girls remain flat. Meanwhile, a different longitudinal trend emerges among boys. Although teachers’ views of Black boys decrease over time, their views of other boys increase to the levels of Black girls, or higher, by the end of fifth grade. This analysis reveals how teachers’ perceptions coalesce into an emerging hierarchy that—by the end of fifth grade—most sharply contrasts the behavior of Asian American girls and Black boys. Our intersectional approach and the theoretical framework informing it underscore the limits to considering how educators distinguish students by gender or race alone. Together, gender and race more fully account for differences in how educators perceive student behavior over time.

The longitudinal association between objectively-measured school-day physical activity and academic achievement in US elementary school students

BackgroundIt is recommended that school-aged children accrue 30 minutes of daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in school. Current literature is inconclusive about the long-term associations between school-based physical activity and academic achievement. In this study, we use a large sample and longitudinal design to rigorously evaluate whether school-day MVPA is associated with academic achievement.MethodsIn a diverse suburban public school district, 4936 Grade 4 students were recruited in 40 elementary schools. Students wore accelerometers to measure school-day MVPA for 15 days across three semesters. Academic performance data was collected across Grade 3 fall to Grade 5 spring, including teacher-assigned grades and standardized test scores. Multilevel modeling was conducted controlling for student demographics and school characteristics.ResultsCross-sectional analyses found small negative associations in Grade 4. Grade 4 full-year mean daily school-day MVPA had β = −-0.066, β = −-0.063, β = −-0.066, and β = −-0.058 associations (p < 0.001) with Grade 4 math, reading, spelling, and writing grades respectively, and Grade 4 full-year mean daily school-day MVPA had β = −-0.206 and β = −-0.283 (p < 0.001) associations with Grade 4 math and English Language Arts (ELA) standardized test scores respectively out of approximately 500 points. Longitudinal analyses found no significant associations between Grade 4 full-year mean daily school-day MVPA and Grade 5 Fall course grades. Results also indicated small negative associations for students attaining 30+ minutes of daily school-day MVPA compared to those attaining less than 15 minutes, but only in Grade 4 Fall cross-sectional analyses where teacher-assigned reading, spelling, and writing grades were − 1.666, − 1.638, and − 1.993 points lower respectively (p < 0.001).ConclusionThe cross-sectional findings, while statistically significant in a negative direction, have a negligible association when translated practically. For example, even if students attained twice the recommended amount of school-day MVPA – which would constitute an approximately 300% increase from current levels – results suggest that grades would only decrease by 2 points on a 100-point scale. Furthermore, longitudinal analyses suggest school-day MVPA does not have a predictive association with course grades or standardized test scores. Findings suggest school-based MVPA implemented in accordance with recommendations does not meaningfully detract from academic progress.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03765047. Registered 05 December 2018 - Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03765047

Identifying false growth mindsets in adults and implications for mathematics motivation

Although the belief that ability can change, a growth mindset, has been identified as beneficial for motivation and challenge seeking, recent criticisms of mindset theory have argued that mindset is a weak predictor of achievement in some circumstances. Meanwhile, researchers have qualitatively described adults who agree with growth mindset, but do not behave as though they believe ability can change (e.g., praise children for their intelligence), suggesting they may hold a false growth mindset. In three studies with US adults (N = 294), undergraduate students (N = 214), and elementary school teachers (N = 132), we used cluster analyses to identify individuals with a false growth mindset. Mindset groups were identified based on participants’ combinations of responses to the traditional mindset measure and two alternative mindset measures. Five groups were identified in each study: fixed mindset, moderate mindset, false growth mindset, effort mindset, and extreme flexibility mindset. The mindset groups differed in their perceived competence in math (Studies 1–3), preference for challenge (Study 1), challenge seeking on optional math problems and math value (Study 2), and beliefs that only some students can do math and math anxiety (Study 3). Findings suggest that holding an inconsistent set of beliefs, like a false growth mindset, might contribute to the disconnect between mindset theory and practice and that consistent responses across a variety of growth mindset measures may prove to be the most adaptive. We conclude with words of caution to the many researchers and educators who hope that growth mindset interventions can improve student outcomes.

Which Children are Frequently Victimized in U.S. Elementary Schools? Population-based Estimates.

We analyzed a population-based cohort of 11,780 U.S. kindergarten children to identify risk and protective factors predictive of frequent verbal, social, reputational, and/or physical bullying victimization during the upper elementary grades. We also stratified the analyses by biological sex. Both girls and boys displaying kindergarten externalizing problem behaviors were at consistently higher risk of frequent victimization during 3rd-5th grade (for the combined sample of boys and girls, verbal odds ratio [OR] = 1.82, social OR = 1.60, reputational OR = 1.85, physical OR = 1.67, total OR = 1.93). Hispanic children relative to non-Hispanic White children and those from higher income families were the most strongly and consistently protected from victimization. Boys were more likely to be physically bullied but less likely to be verbally, socially or reputationally bullied than girls. Other variables including disability, cognitively stimulating parenting, academic achievement, and internalizing behavior problems had statistically significant but less consistent and generally weaker relations with frequent victimization.

Model-Estimated Association Between Simulated US Elementary School–Related SARS-CoV-2 Transmission, Mitigation Interventions, and Vaccine Coverage Across Local Incidence Levels

With recent surges in COVID-19 incidence and vaccine authorization for children aged 5 to 11 years, elementary schools face decisions about requirements for masking and other mitigation measures. These decisions require explicit determination of community objectives (eg, acceptable risk level for in-school SARS-CoV-2 transmission) and quantitative estimates of the consequences of changing mitigation measures. To estimate the association between adding or removing in-school mitigation measures (eg, masks) and COVID-19 outcomes within an elementary school community at varying student vaccination and local incidence rates. This decision analytic model used an agent-based model to simulate SARS-CoV-2 transmission within a school community, with a simulated population of students, teachers and staff, and their household members (ie, immediate school community). Transmission was evaluated for a range of observed local COVID-19 incidence (0-50 cases per 100 000 residents per day, assuming 33% of all infections detected). The population used in the model reflected the mean size of a US elementary school, including 638 students and 60 educators and staff members in 6 grades with 5 classes per grade. Variant infectiousness (representing wild-type virus, Alpha variant, and Delta variant), mitigation effectiveness (0%-100% reduction in the in-school secondary attack rate, representing increasingly intensive combinations of mitigations including masking and ventilation), and student vaccination levels were varied. The main outcomes were (1) probability of at least 1 in-school transmission per month and (2) mean increase in total infections per month among the immediate school community associated with a reduction in mitigation; multiple decision thresholds were estimated for objectives associated with each outcome. Sensitivity analyses on adult vaccination uptake, vaccination effectiveness, and testing approaches (for selected scenarios) were conducted. With student vaccination coverage of 70% or less and moderate assumptions about mitigation effectiveness (eg, masking), mitigation could only be reduced when local case incidence was 14 or fewer cases per 100 000 residents per day to keep the mean additional cases associated with reducing mitigation to 5 or fewer cases per month. To keep the probability of any in-school transmission to less than 50% per month, the local case incidence would have to be 4 or fewer cases per 100 000 residents per day. In this study, in-school mitigation measures (eg, masks) and student vaccinations were associated with substantial reductions in transmissions and infections, but the level of reduction varied across local incidence. These findings underscore the potential role for responsive plans that deploy mitigation strategies based on local COVID-19 incidence, vaccine uptake, and explicit consideration of community objectives.

The Dilemmas of Teaching Dilemmas in a Foreign Language Classroom

Problem-based learning (PBL) has been widely incorporated in STEM classrooms. Unfortunately, its effectiveness for foreign language teaching is less explored. This design case describes the design and implementation process of a Chinese PBL unit in a US elementary school along with the design considerations of teaching dilemma-centered instruction. We provide detailed accounts of our process of developing this PBL curriculum, learning materials, and the two rounds of implementations. We also reflected on the design process and examined the design dilemmas faced by this interdisciplinary design team. Findings show multiple design tensions, which include balancing the language and PBL teaching goals, balancing L1 and L2 use, and the communication challenges within a collaborative design project.

Prevalence of Evidence-Based School Meal Practices and Associations with Reported Food Waste across a National Sample of U.S. Elementary Schools.

Providing meals at school is an important part of the hunger safety net for children in the United States and worldwide; however, many children do not receive school meals even when they qualify for federally-subsidized free or reduced-priced meals. This study investigates the prevalence of several evidence-based practices that have previously been shown to increase the reach and impact of school meals. A survey was sent to a national sample of US elementary schools, with items examining practices regarding school breakfast, school lunch, recess, the promotion of meals, nutrition standards, and food waste, during the 2019–20 school year. Almost all schools that offered lunch also offered breakfast. More than 50% used a breakfast service strategy other than cafeteria service, such as grab-and-go breakfast meals. Providing at least 30 min for lunch periods and providing recess before lunch were reported by less than half of schools. About 50% of schools reported using only one or fewer meal promotional strategies (such as taste tests) throughout the school year. Use of more promotional strategies was associated with less reported food waste in a multivariable regression model accounting for school demographic characteristics. Findings show that some evidence-based practices for school meals are being implemented, but many recommendations are not being widely adopted.

Factor Analysis Reduces Complex Measures of Nutrition Environments in US Elementary and Middle Schools into Cohesive Dimensions in the Healthy Communities Study

BackgroundAlthough it has been recommended that schools be the hub of efforts to improve child nutrition, research describing school nutrition environments in US public schools and their associations with child health is limited. ObjectiveThis study aimed to evaluate the applicability of factor analysis methods to characterize school nutrition environments by identifying underlying factors, or dimensions, in the observed data and to examine the relation between school nutrition environment dimensions and child anthropometric and dietary outcomes. MethodsThis study examined a cross-sectional sample of 4635 US children aged 4–15 y from 386 US elementary and middle schools from the Healthy Communities Study (2013–2015). Data collected from schools were used to create 34 variables that assessed the school nutrition environment. To identify dimensions of school nutrition environments, exploratory factor analysis was conducted with orthogonal rotation, and factor scores were derived using methods to account for sporadic missing data. Mixed-effects regression models adjusted for child- and community-level variables and clustered by community and school examined the associations of school nutrition environment dimensions with child anthropometric and dietary outcomes. ResultsSix dimensions of school nutrition environments were derived: nutrition education, food options, wellness policies, dining environment, unhealthy food restriction, and nutrition programs. The unhealthy food restriction dimension was negatively associated with added sugar intake (β = –1.13, P < 0.0001), and the wellness policies dimension was positively associated with waist circumference (β = 0.57, P = 0.01). ConclusionsThis study demonstrates how factor analysis can reduce multiple measures of complex school nutrition environments into conceptually cohesive dimensions for purposes of assessing the relation of these dimensions to student health-related outcomes. Findings were mixed and indicate that the restriction of unhealthy foods in school is associated with lower added sugar intake. Additional, longitudinal studies are needed to substantiate the utility of this method for identifying promising school nutrition environments.

Implementation of Physical Activity in US Elementary Schools: The Role of Administrative Support, Financial Resources, and Champions.

The intentional integration of physical activity in elementary school classrooms—including brief instructional breaks for activity, or integration into lessons—can benefit children’s physical activity and education outcomes. Teachers are key implementation agents, but despite physical activity in the classroom being an evidence-informed practice, many teachers do not regularly implement it. The aim of this study was to obtain updated nationally representative prevalence estimates in United States public elementary schools, regarding four key outcomes: (1) school adoption of physically active lessons (PA lessons); (2) school adoption of physical-activity breaks (PA breaks); (3) penetration in the classroom, defined as ≥50% of teachers using PA breaks; and (4) dose, defined as an average of at least 50 min per week of PA breaks. We examined variations in outcomes by school demographic characteristics, and by three factors hypothesized to be implementation facilitators (administrative support, financial resources, and presence of a wellness champion at the school). In the 2019–20 school year, surveys were distributed to a nationally representative sample of 1010 public elementary schools in the US; responses were obtained from 559 (55.3%). The weighted prevalence of schools reporting adoption of PA lessons was 77.9% (95% CI = 73.9% to 81.9%), and adoption of PA breaks was nearly universal at 91.2% (95% CI = 88.4% to 94.1%). Few demographic differences emerged, although adoption of PA lessons was less prevalent at higher-poverty schools (73.9%) and medium-poverty schools (77.0%) as compared to schools with lower poverty levels (87.1%; p < 0.01). Across all four outcomes, associations emerged with facilitators in multivariable logistic regression models. The prevalence of adoption of PA lessons, adoption of PA breaks, and dose of PA breaks were all significantly higher at schools where administrative encouragement occurred more frequently. Financial support was associated with implementation outcomes, including adoption of PA lessons, and penetration and dose of PA breaks. Presence of a champion was associated with higher prevalence of reporting adoption of PA lessons. School leaders can play a crucial role in supporting teachers’ implementation of PA breaks and lessons in the classroom, through providing financial resources, encouragement, and supporting champions. Effective school-leadership practices have the potential to positively impact students at a large-scale population level by supporting implementation of PA lessons and breaks.

Engagement beyond a tour guide approach: Korean and US elementary school students' intercultural telecollaboration

This paper reports findings from a case study of intercultural telecollaboration between elementary school students in South Korea and the United States via the social networking service Classting. The goal was to provide an opportunity for Korean students with limited exposure to authentic English language communication to interact with native speakers of English and for the US students to experience online intercultural activity in class with the hope of promoting intercultural communicative competence (ICC) in both student groups. The study applies Byram’s (1997) model of ICC to analyze patterns of engagement within the communication between students. Findings indicate that although both student groups endeavored to create common ground in their intercultural encounters, there was a tendency to relate to each other by enacting a Tour Guide Approach towards their own culture and a Tourist Approach (Byram, 1997) towards the other culture. Findings also show, however, that students went beyond such approaches during “off task” interactional moments, drawing on shared small cultures to initiate more authentic interpersonal engagement and opportunities for knowledge exchange.

Comparing teacher stress in Chinese and US elementary schools: Classroom appraisal of resources and demands

AbstractBased on Messick's (1995) framework of construct validity and responses from 521 teachers in the United States and 580 teachers in China, this study provided evidence of the generalizability aspect of construct validity for the Classroom Appraisal of Resources and Demands (CARD) questionnaire originally developed in the United States. Confirmatory factor analysis, factorial invariance testing, and differential item functioning were employed to examine the systematic variation of interpretation by the Chinese and US elementary school teachers with respect to the 65 items in the CARD. Results suggested that responses to CARD follow the same structure from both Chinese and US teachers, and that 83% of items showed no difference. Differences in Chinese and US teachers' interpretations of certain items were discussed with implications to school psychology, school counseling, teacher education, educational administration, and policy research.