Urban Hierarchy Research Articles

Leave or stay? The determinants of the migration behavior of university graduates in Shanghai

ABSTRACT Millions of university graduates in China either stay in the cities where they go to universities (for their bachelor’s degree) or migrate to other areas each year. What factors determine their destination choice? This paper investigates migration patterns of university graduates from Shanghai among the university city, hometown, and other cities, and the roles of general factors and special Chinese factors such as hukou in graduate mobility. The main findings are as follows. First, key factors that attract graduates to stay in the university city, return to their hometown, or go to other cities are different and one factor may not have the same impact. Second, there are specific spatial patterns of migration from different types of hometowns to three destination types, as different types of hometowns offer different life experiences as well as opportunities in the spatial administrative system. There is a strong preference for Chinese graduates to move up the urban hierarchy to bigger cities than their hometowns. Third, the impacts of some general factors such as housing price, social capital, and human capital are similar to those of Western countries. The impacts of hukou vary. Although graduates have local hukou in their hometowns, most graduates from big cities, towns, and villages prefer not to return to their hometowns. Only graduates from small and medium-sized cities consider returning to their hometowns. But if graduates go to other cities, they do consider hukou factor. Our research has significant implications for urban and regional development and talent policies in China.

Identification and Spatial Characterization of suburban areas in Chengdu

As transitional territories where urban and rural functions interpenetrate, suburban areas have multiple values such as recreation, ecology, agriculture and landscape. Promoting their benign development is the key to realizing global sustainable development of urban and rural areas. Planning control is based on precisely defining the spatial extent of suburban areas, and understanding suburban area differentiation and its driving forces scientifically is a key component in raising the bar for focused planning. However, there are currently few research on fine-scale quantitative identification of suburban regions because of their spatial complexity, ambiguous boundaries, and structural dynamic features. Based on this, this paper develops a multi-dimensional identification index system for suburban areas by using multi-source big data and remote sensing information technology, employs the random forest model and the K-Medoids clustering algorithm, identifies the distribution of suburban areas and their subdivided types, analyzes spatial differentiation characteristics, and conducts empirical research using Chengdu City as an example. The findings demonstrate that: (1) The majority of suburban areas in Chengdu City are concentrated in groups or belts surrounding the urban centers of various districts and counties, and the higher the functional class of a district or county, the denser the distribution of suburban areas. (2)The distribution pattern of suburban areas in Chengdu basically conforms to its planned urban hierarchy system.(3)Urban-oriented, suburban-interacted and rural-oriented suburban areas have their own characteristics in land use level, economic development and regional population characteristics.(4)Regional openness, government behavior, social development and geographical location are the core driving factors of spatial differentiation of suburban areas in Chengdu, and the interaction between urban and rural systems, the flow of social resources and the transformation of development models are the spatial mapping dimensions that affect its differentiation.(5)Chengdu can draw up detailed regulatory planning of suburban units to standardize and guide the overall development of suburban areas. In support of the global sustainable development goals, this study offers a methodology for precisely and impartially defining suburban areas, assisting in the implementation of integrated urban-rural development globally.

Predicting CO2 emissions through partitioned land use change simulations considering urban hierarchy

ABSTRACT An understanding of the relationship between CO2 emissions and land use can provide a deeper understanding of how urbanization affects climate change, provide insights into sustainable urban development, and reveal CO2 emission dynamics in the context of urbanization. However, the accuracy of these predictions is limited due to the poor understanding of the influence of differences in urban hierarchy on land use transition rules. This study proposes an integrated CO2 emission prediction method that utilizes a newly developed future land use simulation (partitioned-FLUS) model and a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) model. Notably, the partitioned-FLUS model considers regional heterogeneities based on urban hierarchies. Based on data from the Yangtze River Delta, zonal partitioning was found to improve Kappa coefficients by at least 13% compared to conventional FLUS models. The results indicated that a significant urbanization belt was likely to form both along and south of the Yangtze River over the next 30 years; resulting in areas of concentrated CO2 emissions. The relationship between land use and CO2 emissions varied greatly between cities of different urban hierarchies. This study suggests that construction land and farmland in Level 1 and 2 cities should be reallocated to Level 3 cities, thereby reducing carbon emissions.

Festive culture, social hierarchization, and urban inequality: Analysis of the fallas of València (1981–2019)

ABSTRACT Festive rituals have been analyzed as rituals of interaction with great capacity to generate group membership and economic impact. However, the conflictual dimension of these rituals should be taken into account, as festive rituals are also spaces of conflict and exclusion. In this sense, ritual festivities can lead to urban cohesion and the generation of local identities, but they can also reinforce internal social divisions, reproducing social inequalities and expressing the social hegemony of the dominant elites. In this sense, the fallas of Valencia constitute a carnivalesque festive ritual that shows exactly these effects, since the organization of the fallas commissions represents one of the city’s principal forms of social participation and cohesion, but at the same time reproduces the social hierarchization of urban districts. Thus, one of the main formats is found in the stratification by neighborhoods. The fallas reflect the economic strength of the traditionally socially dominant neighborhoods, but also show the emergence of new high-income neighborhoods, with new commissions defined by high resources. In this way, studying the fallas is a way of studying the urban hierarchy of Valencia, as they have gone hand in hand throughout the period studied.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and COVID-19 Under the Urban Hierarchy of Municipalities in the State of Rondônia (Western Amazon)

Analyzing the SARS data can provide insights into the severe form of COVID-19, contributing to short, medium, and long-term pandemic response planning. The virus entered Brazilian through air travel, spreading via airport connections. The spatial diffusion of COVID-19 transmission is linked to the territorial division of labor (referring to characteristic daily activities), as reflected in the urban hierarchical network, which serves as a framework for analyzing COVID-19 transmission. This analysis covers mobility aspects such as density, connectivity and the movement of people at different scales. The objective is to evaluate the transmission of SARS and COVID-19 in the state of Rondônia, Western Amazon, between 2020 and 2021, using geoprocessing techniques for spatiotemporal analysis. Maps depicting the urban hierarchy (understood as cities organized by size, from smallest to largest) of the municipalities of Rondônia, along with SARS incidence rates and their standard deviation, were created using QGIS program, version 2.18.20. Spatiotemporal analysis was conducted using Kulldorff statistics to identify clusters of SARS cases in each municipality. A higher concentration of SARS rates ​​was observed in municipalities in the northwestern part of the state. Six spatiotemporal clusters were identified, but no clear pattern of spatial distribution was observed. The spatial diffusion of COVID-19 transmission is linked to the territorial division of labor (i.e., the spatial classification based on the predominant economic activity in each area), as evidenced by the urban hierarchical network, which serves as a reference for analyzing COVID-19 transmission.

Migration across the urban hierarchy: Has China’s urbanisation transitioned from the primate city stage to the secondary city stage?

The population density in megacities in China gives rise to challenges, such as traffic congestion and soaring housing prices. A trend of leaving primate cities can be observed as well as a population increase in secondary cities. These trends might point to an urbanisation transition from the primate city stage to the secondary city stage. Research is needed to determine at which stage of urbanisation China currently resides, and who are migrating across the different levels of cities in this stage. In order to answer these questions, the current study combines the theory of differential urbanisation and migrant selectivity, and analyses city-level migration patterns and demographic characteristics of migrants across the urban hierarchy. The findings indicate that China is currently in the intermediate primate city stage, where the upward migration across the urban hierarchy is driven by younger adults with higher education and income, and a lower likelihood of marriage or parenthood. Building upon global evidence, this research further extends the theory of differential urbanisation by incorporating migrant selectivity into the interpretation of urbanisation stages. It reveals that educated migrants tend to concentrate and move up the urban hierarchy in the primate city stage but might deconcentrate during the secondary and small city stages. This study offers practical insights for policymakers at the national and city levels to develop population growth plans, adjust targeted migration policies and respond to future urbanisation processes.

Evolutionary characteristics and influencing factors of carbon emissions in China: An examination of a 43-year urban scale

Since 1978, China's rapid urbanization and industrialization have significantly increased carbon emissions. This study employs spatial autocorrelation, kernel density estimation, and spatiotemporal geographically weighted regression (GTWR) methods to analyze the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of carbon emissions across 336 Chinese cities from 1978 to 2020. It also explores the dominant influencing factors for different cities at various stages of development. The findings reveal that carbon emissions in Chinese cities exhibit a stepwise growth pattern: “slow growth (1978–1995) - low-level stability (1996–2000) - rapid growth (2001–2012) - high-level stability (2013–2020)." The gap between cities has widened rapidly, and spatially, the distribution follows a “core-periphery” pattern. The increase in carbon emissions in core cities has transformed the urban hierarchy from a “generally low-carbon” structure to a “pyramid” structure. Compared to 1995, the influence of population size on carbon emissions decreased in 2020 (0.54–0.38), while the impact of infrastructure development and technological advances increased (0.02–0.25, 0.09 to 0.19). Due to the varying stages of urban development across regions, the influencing factors of carbon emissions exhibit spatial heterogeneity. Specifically, population size has a stronger positive impact on carbon emissions in the Southeast, technological advances in East and North China, and industrial structure in the Yangtze River Basin region. Infrastructure construction and investment levels show a dampening effect on carbon emissions in the Yangtze River Basin. Finally, the study proposes policy recommendations focusing on implementing regional “gradient” carbon reduction and promoting regional collaborative carbon reduction driven by core cities.

Short-term ozone exposure and cancer mortality in Brazil: A nationwide case-crossover study.

Exposure to ambient ozone (O3) is linked to increased mortality risks from various diseases, but epidemiological investigations delving into its potential implications for cancer mortality are limited. We aimed to examine the association between short-term O3 exposure and site-specific cancer mortality and investigate vulnerable subgroups in Brazil. In total 3,459,826 cancer death records from 5570 Brazilian municipalities between 2000 and 2019, were included. Municipal average daily O3 concentration was calculated from a global estimation at 0.25°×0.25° spatial resolution. Thetime-stratified case-crossover design was applied to assess the O3-cancer mortality association. Subgroup analyses by age, sex, season, time-period, region, urban hierarchy, climate classification, quantiles of GDP per capita and illiteracy rates were performed. A linear and non-threshold exposure-response relationship was observed for short-term exposure to O3 with cancer mortality, with a 1.00% (95% CI: 0.79%-1.20%) increase in all-cancer mortality risks for each 10-μg/m3 increment of three-day average O3. Kidney cancer was most strongly with O3 exposure, followed by cancers of the prostate, stomach, breast, lymphoma, brain and lung. The associated cancer risks were relatively higher in the warm season and in southern Brazil, with a decreasing trend over time. When restricting O3 concentration to the national minimum value during 2000-2019, a total of 147,074 (116,690-177,451) cancer deaths could be avoided in Brazil, which included 17,836 (7014-28,653) lung cancer deaths. Notably, these associations persisted despite observed adaptation within the Brazilian population, highlighting the need for a focus on incorporating specific measures to mitigate O3 exposure into cancer care recommendations.

Clean energy transition and energy security in metropolises: A case study of Beijing under the “coal-to-gas” movement

The transition to clean energy is one of the most important trends of development in the contemporary world, and ensuring energy security during the energy transition has naturally become an issue that urgently needs to be studied. Unlike most studies that analyze this issue at the global and sovereign national levels, this article delves back to the subnational level. It focuses on exploring energy security guarantees in metropolitan areas while considering differences in urban hierarchies. Considering that Beijing is not only the most influential metropolis in China but also a pioneer in promoting clean energy transition globally, this article analyzes the energy security issues in Beijing through the framework of Energy Security and Sustainable Development and explores the policy actions taken during the 2017 “coal-to-gas” movement by the city. Our research shows that the transition to clean energy may reduce the energy security of metropolitan areas. However, the big cities can receive prioritized protection from the central government and state-owned enterprises due to their prominent political status. However, the cost of ensuring energy security in urban areas may be passed on to their surrounding areas, where their energy security may be additionally impacted. These findings indicate that it is necessary to distinguish and examine the energy security of the metropolitan areas and surrounding regions. Only when energy justice is protected can urban areas truly achieve energy security.

Exploring the effects of coworking in two European cities: Financialisation flows and consumption patterns in Athens and Berlin

With the continuous deregulation of state functions in processes of neoliberal urban production, coworking spaces have emerged as autonomous actors in processes of urban development, as they appear to conglomerate flows of freelancers, startuppers, remote workers, digital nomads and financial capital from private investors and large corporations. As such, these actors could play an important role in the organisation of urban activities that could have multiple impacts on the urban economy. Tracing the effects of coworking spaces in metropolitan cities, this qualitative analysis is focused on coworking spaces in Athens and Berlin, two cities characterised by different development trajectories, socioeconomic and cultural contexts and positions within the European and global urban hierarchy. The results reveal that coworking spaces demonstrate high levels of adaptability to the specific characteristics of the urban contexts in which they are located and play a dual role by (1) shaping and channelling the consumption patterns of coworkers while also (2) operating as mediators and facilitators of multilevel private investment and financialisation processes.

Coupled connectivity in the global complex network: the case of United Kingdom (1880–1925)

The main objective of this research is to analyse the connectivity of cities in a coupled network composed of planar (railways) and non-planar (maritime) topologies. It examines the state of the network during the 1880–1925 period, namely in the context of the first globalization wave (1880–1914), when trade and urban development were closely tied to progress in communications systems and steam propulsion especially. Edges represent intercity physical infrastructure on land, and inter-port ship voyages at sea. We tested several hypotheses in terms of inter-network specialisation and urban hierarchies with an application in the United Kingdom. The main results reveal that the networks are highly interdependent, whereas combined centrality is closely associated with city size and urban growth. We discuss the key results in light of network science, spatial science, maritime history, and transport research.

Moving up and down the urban hierarchy: Age‐specific internal migration patterns in Japan based on the 2020 census

AbstractThis study aimed to understand the age‐specific internal migration patterns in Japan where more than a quarter of the population is aged ≥65 years and the national population is on the decline, focusing on the urban hierarchy. Demographic efficiency, which is the ratio of net to gross migration, was calculated for each migration flow between the levels of urban hierarchy in Japan based on the 2020 census. The results showed that the overall upward migration, which is a movement from lower to higher levels in the urban hierarchy, was dominant. A variation in migration patterns by age confirmed that young adults, especially those aged 20–24 years, moved up the urban hierarchy unidirectionally, while people of preretirement and retirement age moved down. The older adults (aged 75 and over) were inclined to move up. Regarding sex‐based differences, the demographic efficiency of women was higher than that of men. Additionally, the upward movement of women was predominant in almost all age groups. These findings suggest the possibility that aggregated migration behaviours may vary by sex, which has received little attention in previous migration studies focusing on urban hierarchies in other countries. Furthermore, this study discussed policy implications based on the observed patterns, such as the impacts of older adults' migration on social security at each hierarchy level and a possible relationship between women's upward migration patterns and future fertility decline.

How to delineate urban gravitational zones? GIS-based multicriteria decision analysis and Huff’s model in urban hierarchy modeling

Urban gravitational zones (UGZ) are related to cities' functions and population size. In strategic regional territorial planning adequate tools and detailed data are rarely used. This issue is not foreign to Croatia and other countries. How should the UGZ be accurately delineated for each city? A combination of Huff's model and GIS-based multicriteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) was used to delineate UGZ. In total, 95 criteria grouped into ten functions were used. The research resulted in a new methodological framework for deriving the urban hierarchy model, a tool that allows automation and simplification of the GIS-MCDA, and an urban hierarchy model of 20 major cities in Croatia.

The urban hierarchy and agglomeration effects influence the response of NPP to climate change and human activities

In recent years, global climate changes and human activities have significantly reshaped ecosystems, posing a challenging aspect for research—accurately understanding how climate and human activities affect vegetation. This study employs the Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach (CASA) model to analyze the spatiotemporal distribution of Net Primary Productivity (NPP) in the Central Yunnan Urban Agglomeration (CYUA) from 1982 to 2019. It measures human activity intensity using the Comprehensive Human Activity Intensity Index (CHAII), which is derived from human activity intensity of land surface, population density, economic conditions, and remote sensing data. Spatial autocorrelation analysis is used to assess human activity clustering. The study employs Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) to quantify the impacts of climate change and human activities on NPP in CYUA across different spatiotemporal scales. The findings are as follows: (1) Human activities in CYUA exhibit a spatial distribution radiating from Kunming City and display distinct spatial autocorrelation characteristics. (2) Increasing human activity reduces NPP. In areas with higher and more concentrated human activity, it suppresses NPP, while positively affecting neighboring areas. The threshold of human activity intensity affecting NPP varies across space and time, with higher thresholds in cities with greater human activity intensity compared to those with lower intensity. (3) NPP and precipitation exhibit a closely positive correlation. Reduced precipitation weakens this correlation. Rising temperatures since 2000 have negatively impacted NPP, especially in regions with higher human activity intensity. (4) This study provides a new institutional perspective for the analysis and formulation of adaptive strategies in regions where ecosystems are jointly impacted by climate change and human activities. Future research can further refine the study of NPP responses to human activities in cities with varying development levels, diverse urban organizational structures, and different urban expansion patterns.

The Anesthesiologists' Perception of Malignant Hyperthermia and Availability of Dantrolene in China: A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a hypermetabolic syndrome with high mortality rates. Early detection and prompt intravenous administration of dantrolene are crucial for effective management of MH. However, there is currently a lack of comprehensive nationwide surveys on the availability of dantrolene and anesthesiologists' understanding of MH in China. A nationwide survey was conducted between January 2022 and June 2022. Online questionnaires on the cognition of MH among anesthesiologists in China were sent through social platforms to anesthesiologists in mainland China. Data regarding participants' perception of MH-related knowledge, availability of domestic dantrolene, and reported MH cases were collected in this study. Responses were collected from a total of 11,354 anesthesiologists representing 31 provinces across the Chinese mainland. Among the 11 scoring questions, the highest accuracy rates were observed for the question regarding therapeutic drugs for MH (99.3%) and the characteristics of MH (98.0%). Conversely, the question pertaining to the earliest clinical signs of MH had the lowest accuracy rate (23.5%). Significant variations were observed in the scores among different professional titles (P=0.003), academic degree (P<0.001), hospital classification (P<0.001), and urban hierarchy (P<0.001). Of the respondents, 919 (8.1%) anesthesiologists reported dantrolene availability in their hospitals, and 631 (5.6%) indicated unclear. A total of 136 hospitals in this survey reported at least one previous case of MH. Mainland China faces challenges such as insufficient experience in diagnosing and treating MH, as well as difficulty in obtaining dantrolene. To improve the public awareness of MH, it is imperative to establish and promote a refined MH training system. Additionally, a streamlined and rapid dantrolene linkage emergency system should be implemented to ensure prompt access to the drug.

Housing differentiation from the spatial opportunity structure perspective: an empirical study on new-generation migrants in China

Using data from the 2017 China Migrants Dynamics Survey, this study employs generalized structural equation modeling to examine the effects of migrants' places of origin and socioeconomic status on their destination choice and access to homeownership in the destination city. The analyses reveal significant disparities in access to homeownership among migrants from different places of origin. Furthermore, the position of the destination city in the urban hierarchy not only has a direct impact on migrants' access to homeownership but also plays an important mediating role. This study highlights the spatial foundations of housing inequality and builds an analytical framework that links spatial mobility with social mobility. Our findings have significant implications for housing policies and practices aimed at improving the housing conditions of new-generation migrants.

Urban residence as a driver of wealth differentials: New evidence from Norway

AbstractWe investigate theoretically and empirically how urban residence contributes to interpersonal differentials in wealth accumulation trajectories through its interrelated influences on labour and housing market outcomes. On the basis of Norwegian register data, we estimate models of one's position in various national wealth distributions over the 2010–2018 period, employing fixed‐effects to reduce geographic selection bias and obtain plausibly causal estimates of the impact of moving between levels of the rural–urban hierarchy. We find that residing in a more urbanized area for a longer duration is strongly related to one's rank in the net wealth, housing wealth and financial wealth distributions. Differentials in net wealth growth among levels of urbanization are most dramatic for younger and higher‐educated individuals, with further advantages for those who settle in Oslo. Structural equation modelling reveals that these plausibly causal effects arise primarily through gains in housing equity and (to a lesser degree) in earnings and capital incomes, confirming our conceptual model.

Editorial: Urban hierarchies in an economic transition to sustainable cities

Editorial: Urban hierarchies in an economic transition to sustainable cities

The Initial Residential Patterns of Immigrants across the Urban Hierarchy in Sweden: The Role of Educational Attainment

AbstractThis study employs the aspirations‐capabilities framework to explore the intricate interplay between choices and constraints shaping migrants' settlement patterns, with a particular emphasis on the often‐overlooked aspect of educational attainment. Using Swedish register data containing information about migrants' educational level, this paper examines and typifies the initial residential sorting patterns of migrants arriving in Sweden in the period 2000–2014. Employing multinomial logistic regression to understand how migrant sorting takes place, the results show a clear distinction in settlement patterns, with higher educated migrants being more likely to settle in metropolitan areas, and lower educated migrants ending up in rural areas, even when controlling for region of origin and purpose of migration. Nordic and African migrants, resettled refugees, older migrants, and migrant families with younger children are most likely to live in sparsely populated areas. The paper concludes that these trends exacerbate existing patterns of spatial polarization.

Land price and urban hierarchy in a medium city: the case of Uberlândia, Minas Gerais

Resumo O objetivo deste trabalho é, a partir dos preços da terra urbana e da espacialização dos investimentos estatais, discutir a estrutura hierárquica urbana de uma cidade média brasileira: Uberlândia, em Minas Gerais. Para tanto, faz-se uma discussão de como se conforma a renda fundiária urbana e da sua composição por diferentes modalidades, segundo os diferentes usos capitalistas potenciais do solo. Nesse sentido, a principal contribuição deste artigo é a análise empírica dos preços da terra urbana, a partir da metodologia de web scraping com os anúncios das imobiliárias, bem como a sistematização e espacialização das inversões estatais, que, aplicadas junto com arcabouço teórico da economia política da urbanização, permitem uma leitura mais apurada das hierarquias urbanas das cidades