Urban Egypt Research Articles

Towards green evolution in urban Egypt: assessing Al Rehab City through LEED-ND and BREEAM-communities frameworks

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the application of green neighborhood rating systems, specifically Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design-Neighborhood Development (LEED-ND) and Building Research Foundation Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)-Communities, in the context of Cairo, Egypt, focusing on Al Rehab City, a prominent urban area in New Cairo. The study begins by providing a background on Al-Rehab City, explaining its strategic planning, urban design, and demographic dynamics. It then delves into the current state of sustainable urban planning in Egypt, highlighting the challenges and opportunities that exist in this rapidly urbanizing context. The core of the article includes a comparative analysis of LEED-ND and BREEAM communities, assessing their adaptability and relevance to the Egyptian urban landscape, especially Al Rehab City. It explores many sustainability issues such as smart location, neighborhood pattern and design, green infrastructure, sustainable transportation, energy efficiency, water conservation, waste management, and community engagement. The discussion extends to examine how each of these aspects of sustainability applies to Al Rehab City, complemented by case studies and examples of current sustainable practices in Cairo. Furthermore, the article identifies specific local challenges in implementing these assessment systems, such as economic constraints, policy constraints, and cultural factors. It also suggests opportunities for improvement, including the potential for public–private partnerships, policy reforms, community engagement, technological innovation, and sustainable urban development modeling. In conclusion, the article provides insight into the future prospects of green urban planning in Cairo. The potential impact of adopting comprehensive assessment systems is discussed, with an emphasis on the role of Al Rehab City as a potential model for sustainable urban development in Egypt and the wider MENA region. The article aims to contribute to the discourse on sustainable urban planning, and provide a roadmap for integrating global sustainability standards into the unique context of Egyptian cities.

Reciprocal spaces: The socio‐material life of balconies in urban Egypt

Abstract“Reciprocal spaces,” such as windows and balconies, connect the vertical and the horizontal, enable the flow of meanings and feelings, and join with other material artifacts to unite emotionally and socially those who are spatially distant, and socially and emotionally distance those who are spatially proximate. Cairo's balconies reveal that reciprocal spaces allow the gaze to be reoriented, the meaning to be circulated, and the feeling to be shared. They blur the distinction between the subject and the object, the observer and the observed, and the high and the low. Drawing on long‐term ethnographic research in Cairo and informed by the work of Pierre Bourdieu and Karen Barad, this paper shows that the balcony is entangled with other objects, spaces, and people in ways that materialize the socio‐economic hierarchies (especially class and gender), which structure daily practices and constitute urban subjects. Incorporating balconies in ethnographic research, this paper argues, enables us to be in the city while thinking of the city, undermining a dichotomy that has long troubled urban anthropology.

Women’s Concerns about Dietary Recommendations Relate to Taste, Affordability, Convenience, Aesthetics, and Self-Confidence: A Qualitative Evaluation in Egypt

Young women from urban Egypt are in a context of nutrition transition with a high prevalence of being overweight, excessive energy and sodium intakes, and insufficient iron, vitamin D, and folate intakes. This study, funded by Danone Nutricia Research, investigated the acceptability of dietary recommendations in young urban Egyptian women that have the potential to improve iron intake and nutrient adequacy. Individual interviews and focus groups were conducted in Cairo with 80 middle-class women aged 18–35 years (students, active women, and housewives). Perceived benefits and drawbacks for each recommended food were examined. Motivations and barriers to improving dietary practices were classified into major emerging themes. Analysis of the interviews showed that promoting the recommended foods would be met with both positive and negative feedback (e.g., a positive impact of fruit, vegetables, milk, or yogurt consumption on hair, nails, and skin appearance, and bad taste of vegetables). Motivations for improving dietary practices included the pursuit of aesthetical (e.g., attaining/maintaining body shape, clear skin, bright teeth, strong nails, silky and thick hair) and psychological (e.g., improved self-confidence and self-esteem) benefits. However, the “curative behavior” of the population targeted (i.e., changing dietary practices only when they face a serious issue), some life-stage-related factors (e.g., students and active women consuming most of their meals out-of-home), and sociocultural and economic factors (e.g., social gatherings, the high price of red meat) can constitute barriers for implementing a set of dietary recommendations. This work highlighted that, beyond socio-cultural and economic factors or curative or life-stage-motivated dieting, the pursuit of aesthetical and psychological benefits are essential factors that shape the acceptability of dietary changes.

Pre- and in-hospital delays in the use of thrombolytic therapy for patients with acute ischemic stroke in rural and urban Egypt.

Reducing pre- and in-hospital delays plays an important role in increasing the rate of intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) in patients with acute ischemic stroke. In Egypt, the IVT rate has increased steadily but is still far away from an ideal rate. The study aimed to investigate the factors associated with pre- and in-hospital delays of IVT among patients with acute ischemic stroke coming from urban and rural communities. This prospective, multicenter, observational cohort study was conducted from January 2018 to January 2019. Patients with acute ischemic stroke, who did not receive IVT, were included in the study. Patients were recruited from three large university stroke centers in Egypt, Assiut (south of Egypt), Tanta (north of Egypt), both serving urban and rural patients, and the University Hospital in Cairo (capital city), only serving an urban community. All participants underwent the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale and full neurological assessment, urgent laboratory investigations, and computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging to confirm the stroke diagnosis. The patients were subjected to a structured questionnaire that was designed to determine the parameters and time metrics for the pre- and in-hospital delays among patients from rural and urban regions. A total of 618 patients were included in the study, of which 364 patients (58.9%) lived in rural regions and 254 (41.1%) in urban regions. General demographic characteristics were similar between both groups. Approximately 73.3% of patients who arrived within the therapeutic time window were urban patients. The time from symptom onset till hospital arrival (onset to door time, ODT) was significantly longer among rural patients (738 ± 690 min) than urban patients (360 ± 342 min). Delayed onset to alarm time (OAT), initial misdiagnosis, and presentation to non-stroke-ready hospitals were the most common causes of pre-hospital delay and were significantly higher in rural patients. For patients arriving within the time window, the most common causes of in-hospital delays were prolonged laboratory investigations and imaging duration. The limited availability of stroke-ready hospitals in rural Egypt leads to delays in stroke management, with subsequent treatment inequality of rural patients with acute stroke.

Understanding the impacts of child marriage on the health and well-being of adolescent girls and young women residing in urban areas in Egypt

BackgroundEgypt has made progress in delaying age at marriage, but child marriage continues to be practiced in many places across the country. This study investigates the impacts of child marriage on the health and wellbeing of girls residing in urban Egypt using a multi-method approach.MethodsThe quantitative component leveraged data from the 2014 Egypt Demographic and Health Survey and focused on (1) reproductive health, (2) maternal health and (3) social outcomes among a subsample of ever-married urban women ages 20–24 (N = 1041). Simple and multivariable logistic regressions were used to estimate prevalence odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for associations between child marriage and the three sets of outcomes. The qualitative component drew from 11 focus groups, 23 in-depth interviews, and 13 key informant interviews conducted in three urban sites in Egypt. The data was thematically analyzed using a combination of inductive and deductive coding.ResultsThe prevalence of marriage under age 18 was 13.22%. Child marriage was significantly associated with ever use of contraception (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) 2.95 95% CI 1.67–5.19), multiple births (AOR 12.93 95% CI 5.45–30.72), rapid repeat childbirth (AOR 2.20 95% CI 1.34–3.63), and pregnancy termination (AOR 1.89 95% CI 1.11–3.23). Many of these associations disappeared after adjusting for marriage duration. Girls married under age 18 had larger spousal age gaps (AOR 2.06; 95% CI 1.24–3.41) and higher odds of FGM (AOR 2.14; 95% CI 1.11–4.13). They were significantly more likely to report receiving no ANC care (AOR 0.39; 95% CI 0.19–0.80), and less likely to deliver through C-section (AOR: 0.53; 95% CI 0.34–0.83). Consequences emerging from the qualitative data centered around five themes: (1) Access to and use of sexual and reproductive health services; (2) exposure to FGM; (3) marriage and birth registration; (4) marital relations; and (5) relationship with in-laws.ConclusionFindings provide important insights into the practice of child marriage in urban areas in Egypt and illustrate a range of adverse consequences associated with the practice.

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY FOR FOOD CONSUMPTION SPENDING IN EGYPTIAN RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES IN THE LIGHT OF SOME ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS: A CASE STUDY FOR GIZA GOVERNORATE

The study included five chapters in addition to the summary and references. The first chapter included three chapters. The first chapter included the general framework for the study. It includes the study problem, its goal, the research method, data sources, study organization, and sample study. As for the second chapter, the theoretical framework of the study. This chapter deals with the concepts and terminology included in the study and related to the research topic. In addition to his discussion of the methodology of preparing income, expenditure and consumption research by the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics, especially with regard to the research sample. The third chapter dealt with reviewing the study a number of the most important research, studies and scientific messages that dealt with the study and analysis of food consumption spending in Egypt and the most important factors affecting it during the period (2000: 2019), in order to be a starting point towards a new study in which repetition and mistakes that were made by the former are avoided With the benefit of their research methods, results and recommendations. As for the second chapter, it was devoted to analyzing the conditions of the food balance of the most important food groups in Egypt and the chronological development of its main components for the most important food groups in Egypt during the period (2001-2016), which is useful in identifying the size of the gap or surplus in each of these groups, In addition to determining the direction of temporal changes that occurred during the study period. While Chapter Three deals with the consumer spending functions of food commodity groups and estimating the spending elasticities of food commodity groups in urban and rural Egypt. The fourth chapter is devoted to studying the analysis of the pattern of food consumption expenditure of Egyptian families, and this chapter discusses the pattern of food expenditure of Egyptian families in rural and urban Egypt on the main food groups, where the pattern of food expenditure of Egyptian families is discussed in terms of the concept, and how Egyptian families are allocated for their spending on groups The staple food in the Egyptian consumption pattern according to the annual income classes of those families. The fifth chapter deals with studying the impact of the most important economic, social, health and demographic factors that are expected to have an impact on the food expenditure of Egyptian families in rural and urban Egypt, as this helps in identifying and measuring the impact of the most important factors affecting the food expenditure of Egyptian families in rural and urban Egypt on the one hand, in addition to an attempt Finding a logical explanation for the effects of that spending on the other hand, which helps in understanding the nature of these variables, as well as it helps in proposing appropriate policies that help in rationalizing and organizing food spending for Egyptian families in rural and urban Egypt.

Hand-washing promotion for preventing diarrhoea.

BackgroundDiarrhoea accounts for 1.8 million deaths in children in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs). One of the identified strategies to prevent diarrhoea is hand washing.ObjectivesTo assess the effects of hand‐washing promotion interventions on diarrhoeal episodes in children and adults.Search methodsWe searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, nine other databases, the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trial Registry Platform (ICTRP), and metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT) on 8 January 2020, together with reference checking, citation searching and contact with study authors to identify additional studies.Selection criteriaIndividually‐randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and cluster‐RCTs that compared the effects of hand‐washing interventions on diarrhoea episodes in children and adults with no intervention.Data collection and analysisThree review authors independently assessed trial eligibility, extracted data, and assessed risks of bias. We stratified the analyses for child day‐care centres or schools, community, and hospital‐based settings. Where appropriate, we pooled incidence rate ratios (IRRs) using the generic inverse variance method and a random‐effects model with a 95% confidence interval (CI). We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of the evidence.Main resultsWe included 29 RCTs: 13 trials from child day‐care centres or schools in mainly high‐income countries (54,471 participants), 15 community‐based trials in LMICs (29,347 participants), and one hospital‐based trial among people with AIDS in a high‐income country (148 participants). All the trials and follow‐up assessments were of short‐term duration.Hand‐washing promotion (education activities, sometimes with provision of soap) at child day‐care facilities or schools prevent around one‐third of diarrhoea episodes in high‐income countries (incidence rate ratio (IRR) 0.70, 95% CI 0.58 to 0.85; 9 trials, 4664 participants, high‐certainty evidence) and may prevent a similar proportion in LMICs, but only two trials from urban Egypt and Kenya have evaluated this (IRR 0.66, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.99; 2 trials, 45,380 participants; low‐certainty evidence). Only four trials reported measures of behaviour change, and the methods of data collection were susceptible to bias. In one trial from the USA hand‐washing behaviour was reported to improve; and in the trial from Kenya that provided free soap, hand washing did not increase, but soap use did (data not pooled; 3 trials, 1845 participants; low‐certainty evidence).Hand‐washing promotion among communities in LMICs probably prevents around one‐quarter of diarrhoea episodes (IRR 0.71, 95% CI 0.62 to 0.81; 9 trials, 15,950 participants; moderate‐certainty evidence). However, six of these nine trials were from Asian settings, with only one trial from South America and two trials from sub‐Saharan Africa. In seven trials, soap was provided free alongside hand‐washing education, and the overall average effect size was larger than in the two trials which did not provide soap (soap provided: RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.58 to 0.75; 7 trials, 12,646 participants; education only: RR 0.84, 95% CI 0.67 to 1.05; 2 trials, 3304 participants). There was increased hand washing at major prompts (before eating or cooking, after visiting the toilet, or cleaning the baby's bottom) and increased compliance with hand‐hygiene procedure (behavioural outcome) in the intervention groups compared with the control in community trials (data not pooled: 4 trials, 3591 participants; high‐certainty evidence).Hand‐washing promotion for the one trial conducted in a hospital among a high‐risk population showed significant reduction in mean episodes of diarrhoea (1.68 fewer) in the intervention group (mean difference −1.68, 95% CI −1.93 to −1.43; 1 trial, 148 participants; moderate‐certainty evidence). Hand‐washing frequency increased to seven times a day in the intervention group versus three times a day in the control arm in this hospital trial (1 trial, 148 participants; moderate‐certainty evidence).We found no trials evaluating the effects of hand‐washing promotions on diarrhoea‐related deaths or cost effectiveness.Authors' conclusionsHand‐washing promotion probably reduces diarrhoea episodes in both child day‐care centres in high‐income countries and among communities living in LMICs by about 30%. The included trials do not provide evidence about the long‐term impact of the interventions.

أثر التعلیم على مکافحة الفقر فی مصر

ملخص الدراسة استهدفت الدراسة قياس أثر التعليم فى الحد من الفقر فى مصر، وذلک من خلال تناول کل من المعالجة النظرية لآليات تأثير دور التعليم فى الحد من الفقر، والأدبيات التطبيقة ، وکذلک استعراض تطور مؤشرات کل من التعليم والفقر فى مصر خلال السنوات السابقة، واجراء الدراسة القياسية باستخدام النموذج اللوجيستى اعتمادا على بيانات مسح الدخل والانفاق للأسرة الذى يتم اعداده بواسطة الجهاز المرکزى للتعبئة العامة والاحصاء. وخلصت الدراسة إلى أن العلاقة بين الانفاق على التعليم والفقر کانت سالبة فى المناطق الجغرافية المختلفة في مصر، وهذا مفاده أن زيادة الانفاق على التعليم تؤدي إلى إنخفاص احتمال وقوع الاسرة تحت خط الدخل. کما أشارت نتائج الدراسة أن زيادة عدد سنوات الخبرة يعنى انخفاض احتمال وقوع الأسرة تحت خط الفقر، وأن التأثير المحتمل للتعليم على الفقر فى الريف أعلى منه في حضر مصر، نظرا للآثار المواتية لتعليم اأبناء في الريف على دخل الأسرة وعاداتها الصحية والأسرية، وکشفت الدراسة أن هناک عدد من الأليات التى من خلالها أن ينتقل تأثير التعليم على الفقر، وذلک مثل الدور الذى يلعبه التعليم فى تحسين مؤشر التنمية البشرية، والحد من عدم المساواه فى توزيع الدخل، ودفع عملية التنمية خاصة بالمناطق الريفية، وکذلک النهوض بوعى الأسرة والفرد. Summary: The study aimed to measure the impact of education in reducing poverty in Egypt, by addressing both the theoretical treatment of the mechanisms of the impact of the role of education in reducing poverty, and the applied literature, as well as reviewing the development of education and poverty indicators in Egypt during 1990- 2018, and conducting the standard study using The logistic model based on the data of the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (2015, 2017. The study concluded that the relationship between spending on education and poverty was negative in different geographical areas in Egypt, and this means that increasing spending on education leads to a decrease in the likelihood of the family falling below poverty line. The results of the study also indicated that an increase in the number of years of experience means that the family is less likely to fall below the poverty line, and that the potential impact of education on poverty in the countryside is higher than in urban Egypt, given the favorable effects of educating children in the countryside on family income and their health and family habits. There are a number of mechanisms through which the impact of education is transmitted on poverty, such as the role that education plays in improving the human development index, reducing inequality in income distribution, advancing the development process especially in rural areas, as well as raising family and individual awareness.

Technological Innovations and Degrowth Opportunities From Urban Egypt: Initiating the Discourse

• Degrowth can support urban sustainability, especially in Global South or developing nations. • Degrowth and technological innovation have had controversial relationships. Some believe they cannot function together, others believe they are supportive. • This debate is evaluated and we posit that they are compatible if managed carefully with effective policies in place. • We provide three technological cases from Egypt, these cases are mapped to degrowth elements. • This is just an initial step in introducing the discourse, degrowth with environmental and social sustainability needs to be included on the map of policy makers. • Policy implications include investment, awareness raising, education, and diffusion of technologies that can support degrowth.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION COMMERCIALS IN URBAN AREA IN EGYPT

Purpose: This research examined the effects of television-advertising viewing on the perceived wealth in society and the materialistic value orientations among adolescents in urban Egypt.
 Methodology: A survey on two hundred (200) adolescents aged eleven (11) to seventeen (17) was conducted in 2013. The urban sub-sample consisted of one hundred (100) respondents studying in Grade 7 and Grade 8 from a secondary school in Cairo city. The rural sub-sample consisted of one hundred (100) respondents studying in Grade 7 and Grade 8 from two (2) rural secondary schools in Alexandria.
 Main Findings: In the survey among urban (Cairo) adolescent respondents, it was found that there were higher estimates among adolescents whose family-owned five (5) modern-day products namely desktop computers, cameras, air conditioners and motorcars. This finding is not surprising as urban dwellers have a higher income than rural folks which translated into the higher purchasing power of buying modern-day products. Urban adolescents’ families owned more than rural adolescents’ families in terms of modern-day products namely desktop computers, cameras, air-conditioners and motorcars except for handphones as there was almost no difference in terms of owning handphones for urban or rural adolescents’ families.
 Implications: In addition, marketers are advised to consider placing advertisements on national television in their quest to reach out and promote their products and services to adolescents living in urban areas, as frequent watching of advertisements on television by adolescents in urban areas has a positive correlation with greater materialistic value.
 Novelty: The importance of this study is that it has managed to present empirical evidence that television advertising has an influence on materialism and perceived level of wealth among adolescents in urban areas of Egypt.

FOOD EXPENDITURE PATTERNS IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS IN EGYPT(In Arabic)

The research aimed to study the relative importance of the individual annual expenditure on food and non-food expenditure, and the relative importance of individual annual expenditure on the main food groups in rural and urban Egypt in 2015, 17/2018. The research aimed to estimate expenditure elasticity of food commodities, In addition to study the effect of household size, the effect of the different region (rural and urban) and the different period on individual annual expenditure on food groups. The research depend on the secondary published data by the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics, Income, Expenditure and Consumption survey in 2015, 17/2018. The research depends on descriptive and quantitative methods to analyze data. The most important results were that expenditure on food and drink in rural Egypt represented a greater percentage than expenditure on food and drink in the urban of Egypt in 2015, 17/2018, and expenditure on food and drink in 17/2018 represented a greater percentage than expenditure on food and drink in 2015. Expenditure elasticity of food groups in general is less than one, which indicates that all food groups are necessary commodities for the consumer in 2015 compared with 17/2018. The household size has significant statistically effect on the all food groups except for fish group in 2015 compared with 17/2018. The effect of different region (rural, urban) on individual annual expenditure has a significant statistical effect on fish group, sugar and sugary foods group, dairy, cheese, eggs group, and non-alcoholic drinks group in 2015 compared with 17/2018. Effect of different period on individual annual expenditure has a significant statistical on the different food groups in 2015 compared with 17/2018. Conclusively, the study recommends that necessary limit the population increase, and spread food awareness among the community members especially in rural areas.

Diet modeling showed that local foods can secure nutrient adequacy except for iron in 19–30 years urban Egyptian women

AbstractGrowing urbanization and rapid changes in dietary patterns and lifestyle led to a nutrition transition in several Arabic countries, including Egypt. While Egyptian women have one of the highest mean body mass index worldwide, they also suffer from several micronutrient deficiencies, more particularly iron and vitamin D. The objective of this study was to identify changes needed in dietary practices and product offer, which could help to rebalance energy and nutrient intakes for women living in urban Egypt. Food intakes were obtained from a 4-days dietary record in 130 women aged 19–30 years from urban Egypt. Food prices were collected in modern and traditional trades typical from middle socio-economic classes in Cairo to calculate diet cost. Modeling analyses (with Optifood software) were used to identify problem nutrients and design affordable food-based recommendations (FBRs). The study assessed whether the most consumed foods (i.e. consumed by > 5% of women) could theoretically ensure nutrient adequacy under the mean diet cost, without exceeding recommendations in energy, SFAs, sugars and sodium. The potential of fortified foods to improve intakes of the most problematic micronutrient to cover was tested in additional modeling analyses. Preliminary results from modeling analyses indicate that iron appeared as the most limiting nutrient with locally consumed foods. Daily consumption of fruits, vegetables, milk or yoghurt, and tahini (sesame paste) associated with specific food choices in the meat-fish-eggs category would result in a low percentage of women at risk of inadequate intakes for 11 out of 12 modeled micronutrients. Among the fortified foods tested, iron fortified bread, rice, milk or yoghurt are the most promising vectors. Local and consumed foods allow to meet nutrient adequacy for most nutrients except iron, for which fortified products would be required. Tailored strategies are needed to promote acceptable FBRs (and fortified products) and secure that nutrient requirements are met by most Egyptian women.

STUDY THE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN SOME ECONOMIC FACTORS ON CONSUMER EXPENDITURE OF MILK IN URBAN EGYPT

The research aims to study the effect of change in consumer expenditure on milk and its products in the urban areas of Egypt according to the different levels of income. The research problem is the decrease in average per capita milk consumption in Egypt compared to the standard rate recommended by international organizations. The research concluded the following results: 1- According to the family budget research for 2015/2016, it was found that the consumer expenditure is affected by many factors such as family income, family size, educational status and age of the head of household, where:  There was an inverse relationship between the income of the family and the expenditure on the on the milk and dairy products, average annual expenditure of the urban population on the dairy was about 10.4% of the average per capita consumption expenditure, and about 19% of the average expenditure on food and drinks for the income category less than 10 thousand pounds, and about 14.7% of the average expenditure on food and drink for the Income category more than 100 thousand pounds.  There was an inverse relationship between the size of the family and the consumer expenditure on the dairy in urban Egypt, is amounted about 1269.2 L.E in the family of one individual, while about 283.2 L.E in the family of 8 people or more.  Average annual per capita expenditure on dairy in urban Egypt increased by the educational level of the head of household. When the head of the household is illiterate the average annual expenditure per capita on the dairy and its products was 5.7%, 14.7% of the average per capita consumption expenditure and the average expenditure on food and drink respectively. On the other hand 4%, 16% of the average per capita consumption expenditure and the average expenditure on food and drink, respectively, when the head of the family has a university degree.  The average annual per capita expenditure in urban areas on the dairy and its products increased with the age of the head of the family, where it was about 4.1%, 14.5% of the average per capita consumption expenditure and the average expenditure on food and drink, respectively, when the head of household is less than 20 years, To about 5.3%, 16.6% of the average per capita consumption expenditure ,and the average expenditure on food and drink, respectively, when the age of head of household is greater than 65 years. 2- By studying the effects of changing in consumer expenditure on milk and dairy and products according to the research sample, it was found that:  The average monthly household consumption of milk, cheese, white cheese, cooked cheese, Turkish cheese, and yoghurt, was about 19.45, 1.43, 1.54, 0.82, 1.05, 0.77 kg respectively. The average monthly consumption per capita of milk, cheese, white cheese, cooked cheese, Turkish cheese and yoghurt, was about 5.26, 0.35, 0.4, 0.22, 0.27, 0.19 kg respectively.  A significant relationship between annual per capita consumption expenditure of dairy and its products according to income levels and family size.  By using the linear and logarithmic regression models between per capita consumption expenditure of dairy and its products and total annual per capita income, it was found that the elasticity is less than one for all income groups.  Lorenz's curve indicates that there is inequity in income distribution. Therefore, the research recommends the following: 1. Increasing the production of milk, to increase the average per capita share to reach international standard. 2. Provide accurate database on the production and consumption of milk to help formulate the necessary policies to achieve justice in the distribution of consumer expenditure. 3. Do more studies on the factors that affecting the consumer to determine proper strategies for the marketing of dairy and its products.

Thirty Years of Urban Bias: An Estimation of the Rising Disparities in Female Rural and Female Urban Unemployment and Income in Egypt

This article highlights the disparities between female urban and rural employment and income in Egypt over the last decades, mainly resulting from urban bias policies. Despite their inferior educational levels, females in rural Egypt manifested higher levels of employment than their counterparts in urban Egypt, a phenomenon that the article attributes to the standard definition of unemployment, which includes unpaid family members as part of the ‘employed’, besides other methodological issues. As such, statistics could misleadingly imply better female rural income compared to female urban income. By means of an innovative attempt to estimate female rural and urban incomes, this article provides some evidence that female rural per capita income accounts for only 0.43 of female urban per capita income, despite rising from 0.2 in 1981. The female rural/urban gap was mitigated when female national incomes rather than female per capita incomes were estimated, with female rural national income accounting for nearly 0.73 of female urban national income.

COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC STUDY OF CONSUMPTIVE EXPENDITURE ON FRUIT IN EGYPT

Fruit's groups are considered one of the main food groups due to the numerous benefits for human health. The current research seeks to find answers regarding the impacts of changes in the prices and per capita income on Egyptian consumers. Accordingly, the research aims to study the main factors affecting expenditure on fruit's groups and measuring elasticities of expenditure on fruit's groups to assess its importance to consumers. Results showed that annual per capita expenditure on fruit's groups accounted for 6.8% and 6.4% of the average annual expenditure on food and drinks at the country level in 2010/2011 and 2014/2015, respectively. Results also showed variances in average per capita expenditure on fruit's group between expenditure categories. It was also found that per capita average expenditure on fruit's groups' group declines as family size increases, where variances exist between different family sizes in terms of per capita average expenditure on fruit's groups. In addition, results showed clear variances between expenditure on fruit's groups by household heads with different levels of education in rural Egypt compared to urban Egypt during 2010/2011 and 2014/2015. It was found that differences in per capita average share of expenditure on fruit's groups group decline as household head's economic activity differs, and as area of residence of household head differs (rural and urban). Results indicated variances between expenditure on fruits' group in urban and rural Egypt as household head's level of education differs, and that per capita expenditure on fruit's group greatly changed between 2010/2011 and 2014/2015 according to household head's occupation. Finally, estimating elasticities of expenditure on fruits indicated that they are semi-necessary goods at the level of urban and rural Egypt in 2014/2015, while proved necessary goods in rural Egypt during 2010/2011. In the light of the achieved results, the research recommended dedicating more support to education, encouraging foreign investment to create job opportunities for the unemployed and to raise the standard of living for society individuals, and promoting media programs that aim to raise awareness about the health benefits of eating proper quantities of fruits per day, especially in rural Egypt.

COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC STUDY OF CONSUMPTIVE EXPENDITURE ON FRUIT IN EGYPT

fruit's groups are considered one of the main food groups due to the numerous benefits for human health. The current research seeks to find answers regarding the impacts of changes in the prices and per capita income on Egyptian consumers. Accordingly, the research aims to study the main factors affecting expenditure on fruit's groups and measuring elasticities of expenditure on fruit's groups to assess its importance to consumers. Results showed that annual per capita expenditure on fruit's groups accounted for 6.8% and 6.4% of the average annual expenditure on food and drinks at the country level in 2010/2011 and 2014/2015, respectively. Results also showed variances in average per capita expenditure on fruit's group between expenditure categories. It was also found that per capita average expenditure on fruit's groups' group declines as family size increases, where variances exist between different family sizes in terms of per capita average expenditure on fruit's groups. In addition, results showed clear variances between expenditure on fruit's groups by household heads with different levels of education in rural Egypt compared to urban Egypt during 2010/2011 and 2014/2015. It was found that differences in per capita average share of expenditure on fruit's groups group decline as household head's economic activity differs, and as area of residence of household head differs (rural and urban). Results indicated variances between expenditure on fruits' group in urban and rural Egypt as household head's level of education differs, and that per capita expenditure on fruit's group greatly changed between 2010/2011 and 2014/2015 according to household head's occupation. Finally, estimating elasticities of expenditure on fruits indicated that they are semi-necessary goods at the level of urban and rural Egypt in 2014/2015, while proved necessary goods in rural Egypt during 2010/2011. In the light of the achieved results, the research recommended dedicating more support to education, encouraging foreign investment to create job opportunities for the unemployed and to raise the standard of living for society individuals, and promoting media programs that aim to raiseawareness about the health benefits of eating proper quantities of fruits per day, especially in rural Egypt.

How to Improve Dietary Practices of 19–30yo Egyptian Women Living in Urban Areas? An Optifood Analysis (OR25-04-19)

ObjectivesThe double burden of malnutrition is rising in several Arab countries due to rapid changes in dietary patterns and lifestyle. Egyptian women have one of the highest BMI worldwide, and nearly one quarter of them suffer from anemia. The objective was to identify changes needed in dietary practices and product offer, which could help to rebalance nutrient intakes for women living in urban Egypt. MethodsFood intakes were obtained from a 4-days dietary record in 127 women (19–30 yo) and food prices were collected in modern and in traditional trades. Modeling analyses (Optifood software) were used to identify problem nutrients and design affordable food-based recommendations (FBRs): we assessed whether locally and consumed foods could theoretically be combined to ensure nutrient adequacy, at a fixed cost, without exceeding recommendations in energy and SFAs, total sugars and sodium. Fortified foods were included in additional modeling analyses to test their potential to improve intakes of the most problematic micronutrient to cover. ResultsPreliminary results from modeling analyses indicated that iron is the most problematic recommendation to cover from a combination of local and consumed foods. Daily consumption of fruits, vegetables, grains, milk or yoghurt, and tahini associated with smart food choices in the meat-fish-eggs category would result in a low percentage of women at risk for 11 out of 12 micronutrients modeled. Among the fortified foods tested, iron fortified bread, rice, milk and yoghurt would be promising vectors to improve iron intakes. ConclusionsLocal foods can ensure nutrient adequacy of most nutrients. However, strategies are needed to promote acceptable FBRs to rebalance the diet of Egyptian women. Iron fortified products could help to improve iron intakes for this population at risk of anemia. Funding SourcesDanone Research.

Is Inequality Underestimated in Egypt? Evidence from House Prices

AbstractHousehold income surveys often fail to capture top incomes, which leads to an underestimation of income inequality. A popular solution is to combine the household survey with data from income tax records, which has been found to result in significant upward corrections of inequality estimates. Unfortunately, tax records are unavailable in many countries, including most of the developing world. In the absence of data from tax records, this study explores the feasibility of using data on house prices to estimate the top tail of the income distribution. In an application to Egypt, where estimates of inequality based on household surveys alone are low by international standards, the study finds strong evidence that inequality is indeed being underestimated by a considerable margin. The Gini index of household per capita income for urban Egypt is found to increase from 39 to 52 after correcting for the missing top tail.

Risky exposures and national estimate of HCV seroprevalence among school children in urban Egypt.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality all over the world, particularly in Egypt. Limited data are available concerning the national seroprevalence and the possible modes of transmission of HCV in the pediatric age group. The aim of this study was to obtain a better estimate of the national hepatitis C seroprevalence and the possible risky exposures among healthy school children in Alexandria; the second biggest city in Egypt. HCV knowledge and counseling for school children were also investigated. A total of 500 school children, age between 6 and 15years were evaluated for HCV seropositivity and interviewed for potential disease risk factors. The seropositivity for Anti-HCV Ab was 2.8%. About 71.4% of seropositive children were 10-15years old. Urban residence, chronic disease, male circumcision and invasive procedures were detected as significant risk factors for acquiring HCV infection among the studied children. The level of awareness of hepatitis C among school children was very low (3.6%) and was correlated with the age and educational level. HCV infection continues to occur in children and is frequently unrecognized. This mandates immediate intervention and robust control strategies in the settings of exposure combined with health education programs to limit further HCV spread.

Hand washing promotion for preventing diarrhoea

BackgroundDiarrhoea accounts for 1.8 million deaths in children in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs). One of the identified strategies to prevent diarrhoea is hand washing.ObjectivesTo assess the effects of hand washing promotion interventions on diarrhoeal episodes in children and adults.Search methodsWe searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register (27 May 2015); CENTRAL (published in the Cochrane Library 2015, Issue 5); MEDLINE (1966 to 27 May 2015); EMBASE (1974 to 27 May 2015); LILACS (1982 to 27 May 2015); PsycINFO (1967 to 27 May 2015); Science Citation Index and Social Science Citation Index (1981 to 27 May 2015); ERIC (1966 to 27 May 2015); SPECTR (2000 to 27 May 2015); Bibliomap (1990 to 27 May 2015); RoRe, The Grey Literature (2002 to 27 May 2015); World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trial Registry Platform (ICTRP), metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT), and reference lists of articles up to 27 May 2015. We also contacted researchers and organizations in the field.Selection criteriaIndividually randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and cluster‐RCTs that compared the effects of hand washing interventions on diarrhoea episodes in children and adults with no intervention.Data collection and analysisThree review authors independently assessed trial eligibility, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias. We stratified the analyses for child day‐care centres or schools, community, and hospital‐based settings. Where appropriate, incidence rate ratios (IRR) were pooled using the generic inverse variance method and random‐effects model with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We used the GRADE approach to assess the quality of evidence.Main resultsWe included 22 RCTs: 12 trials from child day‐care centres or schools in mainly high‐income countries (54,006 participants), nine community‐based trials in LMICs (15,303 participants), and one hospital‐based trial among people with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) (148 participants).Hand washing promotion (education activities, sometimes with provision of soap) at child day‐care facilities or schools prevents around one‐third of diarrhoea episodes in high income countries (rate ratio 0.70; 95% CI 0.58 to 0.85; nine trials, 4664 participants, high quality evidence), and may prevent a similar proportion in LMICs but only two trials from urban Egypt and Kenya have evaluated this (rate ratio 0.66, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.99; two trials, 45,380 participants, low quality evidence). Only three trials reported measures of behaviour change and the methods of data collection were susceptible to bias. In one trial from the USA hand washing behaviour was reported to improve; and in the trial from Kenya that provided free soap, hand washing did not increase, but soap use did (data not pooled; three trials, 1845 participants, low quality evidence).Hand washing promotion among communities in LMICs probably prevents around one‐quarter of diarrhoea episodes (rate ratio 0.72, 95% CI 0.62 to 0.83; eight trials, 14,726 participants, moderate quality evidence). However, six of these eight trials were from Asian settings, with only single trials from South America and sub‐Saharan Africa. In six trials, soap was provided free alongside hand washing education, and the overall average effect size was larger than in the two trials which did not provide soap (soap provided: rate ratio 0.66, 95% CI 0.56 to 0.78; six trials, 11,422 participants; education only: rate ratio: 0.84, 95% CI 0.67 to 1.05; two trials, 3304 participants). There was increased hand washing at major prompts (before eating/cooking, after visiting the toilet or cleaning the baby's bottom), and increased compliance to hand hygiene procedure (behavioural outcome) in the intervention groups than the control in community trials (data not pooled: three trials, 3490 participants, high quality evidence).Hand washing promotion for the one trial conducted in a hospital among high‐risk population showed significant reduction in mean episodes of diarrhoea (1.68 fewer) in the intervention group (Mean difference 1.68, 95% CI 1.93 to 1.43; one trial, 148 participants, moderate quality evidence). There was increase in hand washing frequency, seven times per day in the intervention group versus three times in the control in this hospital trial (one trial, 148 participants, moderate quality evidence).We found no trials evaluating or reporting the effects of hand washing promotions on diarrhoea‐related deaths, all‐cause‐under five mortality, or costs.Authors' conclusionsHand washing promotion probably reduces diarrhoea episodes in both child day‐care centres in high‐income countries and among communities living in LMICs by about 30%. However, less is known about how to help people maintain hand washing habits in the longer term.22 March 2019Update pendingAuthors currently updatingThe update is due to be published in 2019.