Unskilled Blue-collar Workers Research Articles

Alcohol-related mortality among men in Austria 1981–2002 and the importance of qualification and employment

The aim of this paper is to explore the relationship between alcohol-related mortality and social status among men in Austria, and to examine changes during the 1980s and 1990s. We linked individual census records for the Austrian population from 1981, 1991, and 2001 with death register records for a follow-up period of one year. The final data set contains 5,038,654 records of men 35–74 years old, of whom 3824 died of causes explicitly related to alcohol abuse. Standardized mortality ratios by education, occupation and employment were calculated for alcoholand non-alcohol-related causes of death. A regression-based inequality measure was used for analyses of trends. We find that low educated men were 2.77 (1981/82), 3.49 (1991/92), and 3.23 (2001/02) times more likely to die of alcohol-related causes of death than high educated, while it was just 1.59, 1.80, and 1.89 for other conditions. Among men 35–59 years old, unskilled blue-collar workers had on average a 5.6 and 5.0 times higher risk than upper white-collar employees in 1981/82 and 1991/92; for non-alcohol related causes it was 2.0 and 2.2. Unemployed or early retired men were particularly at risk. In 2001/02 low-skilled inactive were 18 times more likely to die on alcohol-related causes than high-skilled economically active men. Over time the social inequalities in alcohol-related mortality increased but only between 1981/82 and 1991/92; and among those 35–59 years old only for the economically inactive. A good education and sophisticated vocational skills are important protective factors for alcohol problems; however, what matters most is whether or not people are employed.

Labor Representation in Governance as an Insurance Mechanism*

We investigate how Germany’s mandated 50% labor representation on supervisory boards affects layoffs and wage cuts during industry shocks. We hypothesize that parity codetermination helps the implementation of implicit contracts that insure employees against adverse shocks. We estimate difference-in-differences in employment and wages using panel data at the establishment level. The results show white-collar and skilled blue-collar workers employed by firms with parity codetermination are protected against layoffs and wage cuts during shock periods. Moreover, white-collar workers and skilled blue-collar workers pay an insurance premium of about 3% in the form of lower wages. In contrast, we find no evidence of insurance for unskilled blue-collar workers; they are neither protected against industry shocks, nor do they pay an insurance premium in the form of lower wages. These results suggest that parity-codetermined firms extend the insurance to encourage investment in firm-specific human capital by those whose skills and qualifications are more valuable.

Disparities in death: Inequality in cause-specific infant and child mortality in Stockholm, 1878‒1926

Background: The decline of child mortality during the late 19th century is one of the most significant demographic changes in human history. However, there is evidence suggesting that the substantial reductions in mortality during the era did little to reduce mortality inequality between socioeconomic groups.Objective: The aim of this study is to examine the development of socioeconomic inequalities in cause-specific infant and child mortality during Stockholm’s demographic transition.Methods: Using an individual-level longitudinal population register for Stockholm, Sweden, between 1878 and 1926, I estimate Cox proportional hazards models to study how inequality in cause-specific hazards of dying from six categories of causes varied over time. The categories included are 1) airborne and 2) food and waterborne infectious diseases, 3) other infectious diseases, 4) noninfectious diseases and accidents, 5) perinatal causes, and 6) unspecified causes.Results: The results show that class differentials in nearly all causes of death converged during the demographic transition. The only exception was the airborne infectious disease category, for which the gap between white-collar and unskilled blue-collar workers widened over time.Conclusions: The results demonstrate that, even in a context of falling mortality and a changing epidemiological environment, higher socioeconomic groups were able to maintain a health advantage for their children by reducing their risks of dying from airborne disease to a greater extent than other groups. Potential explanations for these patterns are suggested, as well as suggestions for future research.Contribution: This is the first paper to use individual-level cause-of-death data to study the long-term trends in inequality of cause-specific child mortality during the demographic transition.

Relationship between symptoms of dry eye syndrome and occupational characteristics: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2012

BackgroundDry Eye Syndrome (DES) is a broad spectrum of uncomfortable ocular conditions that are caused by reduced production of tears or an increased tear evaporation rate. This study evaluated the relationship between symptoms of DES and occupational characteristics to identify the occupation-dependent differences in the prevalence of symptoms of DES using the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey V (2010–2012) data.MethodsA total of 6023 participants were included (3203 men and 2820 women). Questionnaires and physical examinations were used to record clinical characteristics, occupational characteristics and medical history. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs) for symptoms of DES were calculated according to the occupational characteristics.ResultsAmong the participants, 963 persons (16.0 %) had symptoms of DES. An increased risk (relative to the green-collar group) was observed for the ordinary white-collar (OR, 1.73; 95 % CI, 1.73–1.41), executive white-collar (OR, 1.40; 95 % CI, 1.02–1.92) and skilled blue-collar (OR, 1.44; 95 % CI, 1.04–2.00) groups. Furthermore, paid workers had a significantly higher risk of dry eye symptoms (OR, 1.21; 95 % CI, 1.02–1.45), compared to self-employed workers.ConclusionOur study is the first research to reveal that white-collar workers have a higher risk of symptoms of DES than blue-collar workers, that skilled blue-collar workers have a higher risk than unskilled blue-collar workers, and that paid workers have a higher risk than self-employed workers.

Unfair Pay and Health: The Effects of Perceived Injustice of Earnings on Physical Health

While there is ample evidence that income inequalities influence individuals' health status, the mechanisms behind this income inequality-health correlation are only partially understood. This study shows that inequalities evaluated on the basis of individual perceptions of injustice are a driving force behind this connection. Two main questions are addressed: Does perceiving one's earnings as unfair affect physical health? Do such perceptions contribute to structural health inequalities? The hypotheses presented are based on the effort-reward imbalance model, according to which experiencing injustice causes stress, which can have a negative effect on individual health. Analyses of large-scale longitudinal data from the German Socio-Economic Panel of the years 2005-2010 show that female employees who perceive their earnings as unjustly low display significantly worse physical health, and that if employees perceive their earnings to be unjust for an extended period, this contributes to the deterioration of individual physical health in male and female employees. Employees from lower social classes, in particular unskilled blue-collar workers, more frequently perceive their earnings to be unjust. Experience of unjust earnings mediates the relationship between social class and physical health, if to a limited extent. Our conclusion is that differential exposure to unjust earnings contributes to the emergence of structural health inequalities.

Migration to U.S. frontier cities and job opportunity, 1860–1880

I use a new sample of families linked between the 1860 and 1880 U.S. censuses to study the impact of migration to frontier cities on job holding. Using variation in transportation costs between different regions of the country to generate exogenous migration, I find frontier city migration had significant job-holding benefits. The impact of migration on job holding was 68% greater for immigrants than for the native born. Expectations about job holding were the most important factor in the decision to migrate to a frontier city. Clerical workers, unskilled blue-collar workers, immigrants, and the poor were also the most likely to migrate. These results show the benefits of geographic mobility and suggest the contribution of frontier cities to economic opportunity in America's past.

TEAMWORK AND INTRA-FIRM WAGE DISPERSION AMONG BLUE-COLLAR WORKERS

Using data on a sample of manufacturing establishments in Germany, we find that the use of self-managed teams is associated with increased intra-firm wage inequality between skilled and unskilled blue-collar workers. We also show that moderating factors play an important role. While teamwork interacts positively with employer-provided further training and a production technology of the most recent vintage, it interacts negatively with the age of the establishment and the coverage by a collective bargaining agreement.

Labor Hoarding in Russia: Where Does it Come From?

The paper focuses on the labor hoarding problem in Russia. We studied two forms of hoarding: unpaid leaves and short-time work. Our research is based on the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey (RLMS) database. The paper exploits individual panel data between 1994 and 1996. We show that unpaid leaves and short-time work do not represent a form of hidden unemployment. Both types of labor hoarding reflect the nature of employees' professional competencies. First, unpaid leaves concern primarily the employees with firm-specific knowledge, while short-time work affects strongly unskilled workers. Second, external mobility is mostly related to young people and unskilled blue-collar workers while employees with specific competencies do not change jobs so much. The paper insists on significant internal adjustments which are taking place through unpaid leaves and short-time work. This explains why there has been no massive unemployment in Russia until now. In conclusion, Russian labor market is characterized rather by internal flexibility than by labor hoarding.

Teamwork and Intra-Firm Wage Dispersion Among Blue-Collar Workers

Using data on a sample of manufacturing establishments in Germany, we find that the use of self-managed teams is associated with increased intra-firm wage inequality between skilled and unskilled blue-collar workers. We also show that moderating factors play an important role. While teamwork interacts positively with employer-provided further training and a production technology of the most recent vintage, it interacts negatively with the age of the establishment and the coverage by a collective bargaining agreement.

Unskilled blue collar workers: Bourgeois and/or authoritarian? Results from a small scale survey in Belgium

In this article, two contrasting theories on the attitudes of unskilled blue collar workers are confronted: the ‘embourgeoisement’ thesis and the hypothesis of the ‘authoritarianism of the working class’. The ‘embourgeoisement’ thesis states that blue collar workersadopted the attitudes (and life style) of white collar workers, from whom they can no longer be distinguished. Lipset’s hypothesis of the ‘authoritarianism of the working class’, on the other hand, states that blue collar workers more strongly endorse a conservative attitude on socio-cultural matters and a progressive stand concerning socio-economic issues. Both hypotheses are tested using data from a small scale survey (N = 135) among unskilled blue collar workers and lower- and mid-level white collar workers from different large companies in the region of Leuven, Belgium. The results indicate that the interviewed unskilled blue collar workers still hold a set of attitudes that distinguishes them from the interviewed white collar workers. So, the ‘embourgeoisement’ thesis was refuted. Instead, the unskilled blue collar workers were more conservative on a socio-cultural level, and more progressive concerning socio-economic issues. These results are in line with Lipset’s ‘authoritarianism of the working class’ hypothesis.

Factors Other than Risks in the Workplace as Determinants of Socioeconomic Differences in Health in Italy

To evaluate differences in mortality by social class and to determine the impacts of socioeconomic factors on health inequalities in Italy, mortality data from 1981-2001 were analyzed as a function of social class in Turin, controlling for occupational risks, housing conditions, and education. For general and cause-specific mortality, the weight of each socioeconomic indicator was evaluated on population-attributable fraction to social class. Among men, mortality risk was significantly higher in unskilled blue-collar workers (RR = 1.45). Among women, the differences by social class were slighter. Education and economic status mostly explain the mortality differences by social class in men, while economic status showed the highest contribution in women.

Wage Differentials and International Trade in Italy Using Individual Micro Data 1991-1996

Our results show that international integration, both in terms of trade in goods and in terms of international labour mobility, plays a role in determining the wage differential between skilled (white collar) and unskilled (blue collar) workers, but the impact is in opposite directions. While, on the one hand, increasing trade in goods reduces wage differentials (through a positive impact on the wages of the unskilled workers), on the other hand immigration increases wage differentials, affecting the wage of the unskilled. In addition, in line with the research in labour economics, our findings show that the individual characteristics of workers matter in explaining wage differentials: the growth of women participation in the labour market reduces the wage gap, while the ageing of the employees increases it. In this paper we use individual micro data on workers combined with industry and regional data to study the dynamics of the wage differentials between skilled and unskilled workers in Italy in the period 1991-1996. Being different to previous empirical studies, our data allow us to explore in a unique framework the role of many of the factors indicated in the literature as possible causes of the widening of the wage gap between skilled and unskilled workers: changes in the individual characteristics of workers, changes in the institutions of the labour market, increasing international integration and skill-biased technological progress.

Long-term follow-up and prognosis of work capacity in the early stage of chronic polyarthritis

Work disability (WD) in early rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has not been extensively evaluated in Germany. Therefore, the occurrence of WD pension within the first seven years of RA and prognostic indicators of the first year including the duration of sick leave (SL) were analyzed. Within the first year of RA according to the ACR 1987 criteria, 141 gainfully employed patients were entered into a prospective multicenter study (61% females, mean age 47 +/- 9 years, mean disease duration 6 +/- 3.5 months). One hundred and ten patients (78%) participated in a reevaluation (postal questionnaire) after a mean follow-up of 6.1 +/- 0.4 years. Predictors of WD pension were identified in univariate analyses and in backward multivariate Cox regression analyses (p < 0.05) with Hazard-ratios [H-R] as measures of WD risk. Of 110 patients 53 (48%) were still employed at reexamination. WD due to RA occurred in 5% after one year disease duration, in 15% after 2 years, in 20% after 3 years, and in 28% after 6.5 years. Other reasons for leaving the labor force were found in 24%. High pain intensity, radiographic erosions, comorbidity and the pain behavior of avoidance were associated with WD only in univariate analyses. Age > 45 years [H-R 6.3] and the following job-related prognostic indicators were identified in the multivariate analyses: working under pressure of time [H-R 9.0], limited joint motion interferring with job tasks [H-R 5.9], feeling overworked [H-R 3.8] and work status (unskilled blue-collar workers vs white-collar professionals and self-employed persons) [H-R 3.4]. In an alternative final Cox-regression model the variables feeling overworked and work status were replaced by SL duration > 8 weeks within the first year of RA [H-R 7.1]. Since WD frequently occurs already within the first 3 years (20%) adequate interventions resulting from the prognostic indicators have to begin early in the course of RA. Apart from the rheumatological treatment and rehabilitation focusing on the reduction of pain, improved coping with pain, reduced joint destruction and improved mobility particularly working under pressure of time should be avoided and the work place has to be adjusted in case of limited joint motion interferring with job tasks. SL of several weeks duration already within the first year of RA is a red flag for impending WD.

Lifetime principal occupation and risk of cognitive impairment among the elderly.

We used a nested case-control design with study participants sampled from two cohorts, for a total of 2,198 elderly people 65 years or older and completed cognitive tests between 1993 and 1997, to assess the association between an individual's lifetime principal occupation and the subsequent risk of cognitive impairment. Cases consisted of 290 older adults with impaired cognitive functioning. For each case, two controls with comparable age (within 5 years) and sex frequencies were randomly sampled from the seniors free of cognitive impairment. Occupational data were collected through interviews. Individual's job content was coded into one of the occupational categories or the occupation-based social classes. Compared to those who were former legislators, government administrators, or business executives and managers, a significantly elevated risk of cognitive impairment was estimated for those who were employed as agriculture/animal husbandry/forestry/fishing workers (odds ratio (OR)=3.2), craft and related trades workers (OR=2.2), plant and machine operators and assemblers (OR=14.7), workers of elementary occupations (OR=3.2), or housekeepers (OR=2.6). We also observed health inequalities in the risk of cognitive impairment across social classes with a significant dose-response trend in which unskilled blue-collar workers had the highest risk. After adjustment for education, we still observed an inverse relationship between risk of cognitive impairment and occupational class. This may mean that lifetime longest-held occupation is more intimately involved in the causal pathways leading to cognitive impairment. Further studies that collect information on specific work hazards would help make specific interpretations of the observed effect of lifetime longest-held occupation in early adulthood on risk of cognitive decline in late life.

The influence of socioeconomic status on stillbirth risk in Sweden.

Low socioeconomic status (SES) is generally associated with increased risk of stillbirth, but the mechanisms have rarely been investigated. Our aim was to study the association between SES and risk of stillbirth, and to assess whether any differences in risk are mediated by other maternal socio-demographic or anthropometrical characteristics, differences in lifestyle, or attendance at antenatal care. Population-based individually-matched case-control study including 702 cases of stillbirth and 702 controls among Swedish primiparous women giving birth 1987-1996. We estimated the risk of stillbirth, and subgroups of stillbirth, for various categories of SES. Odds ratios (OR) with 95% CI, estimated by conditional logistic regression, were used to approximate the relative risk. The estimates were adjusted for maternal age, height, body mass index, cigarette smoking, and when necessary mother's country of birth. Compared with women who were high level white-collar workers, the adjusted risks of stillbirth were as follows: unskilled blue-collar workers, 2.2 (95% CI : 1.3- 3.7), skilled blue-collar workers, 2.4 (95% CI : 1.3-4.1), low level white-collar workers, 1.9 (95% CI : 1.2-3.2), and intermediate level white-collar workers 1.4 (95% CI : 0.9-2.4). These risks were not substantially changed when we further adjusted for attendance at antenatal care, previous reproductive history, or excluded pregnancies with maternal diseases, and pregnancy-related disorders. Low social class was most associated with risks of term antepartum and intrapartum stillbirths. Low SES increases the risk of stillbirth. The association could not be explained by any of the factors we studied, and the underlying reasons remain unclear.

Longest held occupation in a lifetime and risk of disability in activities of daily living

OBJECTIVESTo examine the association between the longest held occupation in a lifetime and risk of disability in activities of daily living (ADL) among elderly people (65 years and older) in...

Industrial Relations and the Wage Differentials between Skilled and Unskilled Blue-Collar Workers within Establishments: An Empirical Analysis with Data of Manufacturing Firms

Increased wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers is a stylized fact, which can be observed in many developed countries. Among the explanations advanced for this phenomenon is the increasing globalization, a skill-biased technical progress, restructuring of the firms, and last but not least, a decreasing importance of industrial relations institutions. In the paper, we investigate in a three-step procedure with firms' data whether the latter determinant is influential. We control for the other relevant explanations and split industrial relations into three components - coverage of collective bargaining, existence of a works council, and union density ? within a four-equation model. We find an insignificant influence of the union density. A Works council compresses the wage differentials between skilled and unskilled blue-collar workers while coverage is effective in the opposite direction. The latter two effects nearly offset each other.

Innovations, Wages and Demand for Heterogeneous Labour: New Evidence from a Matched Employer-Employee Data-Set

This paper examines the impact of innovations and wages on the demand for heterogeneous labour. Based on matched data from the IAB-establishment panel survey and the files of the employment statistics register for the year 1995, input shares derived from a generalised Leontief cost function are estimated for six qualification groups (blue and white collar workers stratified into unskilled, skilled and highly-skilled employees) in the West German production industries. With the exception of highly skilled blue collar workers, innovations have a positive and significant effect on labour demand for all groups, with an estimated relative change of the conditional labour demand ranging between 3.2% and 6.3%. Between white collar workers as well as between unskilled and skilled blue collar workers, we find an increasing positive impact of innovations on labour demand with qualification level. Skilled and highly skilled employees are found to be substitutes for the unskilled. This result implies that more flexible wages of the unskilled would reduce the unemployment of this group. Finally, our data is not consistent with separability of blue-collar employees from white collar employees, there is weak evidence that skilled and highly skilled blue collar employees can be aggregated.

Total and occupationally active life expectancies in relation to social class and marital status in men classified as healthy at 20 in Finland.

To study differences in total life expectancy and in occupationally active life expectancy in relation to social class and marital status in men classified as healthy as young adults. Historical cohort study. Finland. Altogether 1662 men classified as completely healthy at the time of induction to military service (mean birth year 1923), who had been selected as referents for a study of former athletes. Mean follow up time was 46 years. Vital status was determined by follow up through local parish data up to 1990. Mortality data were obtained from the Cause of Death bureau of the Central Statistical Office of Finland. Occurrence of work disability was assessed from nationwide disability pension register data. Mean total life expectancy and mean occupationally active life expectancy (end points disability pension or death before age 65 years) were estimated. Social class was based on the major lifetime occupation, while marital status was classified as "never married" or "ever married" at the end of follow up. Mean total life expectancy was highest among executives and managers (73.2 (95% confidence interval (CI): 70.3, 76.1) years), next highest in clerical (white collar) workers (72.0 (70.0, 74.1) years), and lowest in unskilled blue collar workers (63.65 (61.1, 66.2) years). Skilled workers and farmers were intermediate. For the occupationally active life expectancy estimates, a similar gradient was observed: highest for executives (61.9 (60.7, 63.1) years) and lowest for the unskilled (52.2 (50.2, 54.2) years). The ratio of occupationally active life expectancy to total life expectancy was highest for executives (85%) and lowest for farmers (81%) and unskilled workers (82%). The social class gradient known to exist for mortality is also present for occupational disability. Social class and marital status differences in mortality are already evident in early adulthood and continue into old age. Those with the highest life expectancy also have the largest proportion of their life span free of occupationally incapacitating disability.

Socioeconomic differences in mortality among diabetic people in Finland: five year follow up.

To compare socioeconomic differences in mortality (by cause of death) among diabetic people with those in the rest of the population. Five year follow up of mortality in the population of Finland, comparing people with diabetes and those without diabetes. Finland. All residents of Finland aged 30 to 74 included in the 1980 census. Subjects were classified as diabetic (230,000 person years) or other (12,400,000 person years) according to whether they were exempted from charges for medication for diabetes. During 1981-5 there were 114,058 deaths, of which 11,215 were in people with diabetes. Age standardised mortality by sex, social class, and cause of death for the diabetic and non-diabetic populations. No significant social class differences in mortality were found among women with diabetes. Among diabetic men there was a slight increasing trend in mortality from the upper while collar group to the unskilled blue collar workers but it was much less steep than that of non-diabetic men. Among people with diabetes in Finland the quality of treatment and compliance with treatment probably do not vary by socioeconomic status. Health education for diabetic people seems to be effective in all socioeconomic strata; in people from the lower strata this leads to greater changes because their health behavior was originally less good.