Unsatisfactory Term Research Articles

A Global Tug of War: A Topography of Micro-Business Financing

Micro-businesses are the lifeblood of any functioning economy: they are more numerous and, collectively, have a higher turnover than any other form of business in the majority of countries around the globe. In all parts of the world, developed and undeveloped, however, they are starved of finance, and the finance that is available is often on unsuitable and unsatisfactory terms. This paper maps out the reasons for this, as well as particular problems caused by the unique characteristics of micro-businesses, and suggests some legal and institutional responses. Some responses are designed to increase access to finance for micro-businesses, by proposing measures to eliminate barriers, decrease costs and increase lender certainty. Others, however, are suggested in order to protect the borrowers, as by their nature, micro-businesses are vulnerable to abuse of bargaining power, and, since many of the risk-takers are individuals, lack of protection leads to social problems. These two rationales for legal response are in direct tension with each other in that a legal response designed to achieve the former usually cuts across the aim of the latter and vice versa. Without an appropriate balance being reached, changes designed to facilitate the financing of micro-businesses can either end up being so oppressive that the very people the changes are designed to assist fail to thrive economically or socially, or go too far towards protecting the borrowers and fail to increase access to credit. The actual decisions as to the appropriate balance are, of course, a matter of policy and will vary from state to state, depending on many factors. This paper seeks to identify responses and the resulting tensions, and go some way towards mapping out a framework for achieving that appropriate balance.

A proactive and acceptable clinic solution for patients with medically unexplained symptoms.

In their service development for medically unexplained symptoms (MUS), Rohricht & Elanjithara1 bring much-needed attention to the problem of developing a service that is both effective and one that patients choose to attend. They highlight that a significant proportion may only engage in a collaborative model at a primary care level. One of the first reasons for this is the terminology prevalent in this field.2 The patients find ‘somatoform’ and ‘medically unexplained’ symptoms unsatisfactory terms which have connotations that ‘it is all in the mind’. They wonder if the low referral rate from some general practitioners (GPs) and the non-attendance by nearly a quarter of patients referred is related to this. When developing pilot services for MUS, we chose to call our service the ‘symptom management clinic’ and locate it within GP surgeries, to avoid prejudicing its acceptability by alignment with mental health hospitals or psychological terminology. On auditing our attendees, many said they ‘would not have attended a clinic located with a mental health provider’ and we achieved high user satisfaction ratings for the ease of accessibility and format of the clinic. We also incorporated the proactive identification that Rohricht & Elanjithara call for. We decided to ‘case find’ and asked GPs in four separate surgeries to identify any patients that had been seen at the surgery more than 10 times in 2 years; had at least two negative diagnostic tests; and were not currently involved with specialist mental health services. We then examined case notes and excluded patients with current diagnostic codes on the GP database. This process was time consuming, although it has future potential to be automated, but it did have the benefit of finding patients who had not been thought by the GP as having MUS but were actually presenting and being referred for repeated investigations without a diagnosis. Similarly, Burton et al3 used repeated referrals to secondary care as a guide and found that ‘at least three times in 5 years’ identified MUS patients with high levels of secondary care usage. In one surgery alone, we identified 17 patients who had 286 out-patient and hospital attendances between them over 2 years with an average cost of £2396/year (range £374–7403). Of these referrals, 13 patients attended a symptom management clinic appointment with a consultant in liaison psychiatry or a consultant clinical neuropsychologist. Involvement of the GP was considered crucial, with a short feedback session with both GP and patient following the clinic to develop a collaborative approach to ongoing management. This also provided a concurrent training benefit for GPs which they valued. A cost analysis of the patient’s healthcare usage before the symptom management clinic and for 2 years following assessment used standard hospital tariff costs and showed a reduction of 48% in secondary care usage alone. We also showed an increase in functioning, as measured by the EuroQol-5D (EQ-5D), and some evidence of a reduction in Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Around half of the patients went on to access psychotherapy via the improving access to psychological therapies (IAPT) pathway and other established programmes such as pain management, but many remained managed in primary care alone (details available from the author on request). We look forward to commissioners placing some confidence and resources in these preliminary MUS services to encourage learning and development of methods for improved identification and adequate treatment of this large, neglected and often costly patient group.4

Europe and the Islamic World: A History, by John Tolan, Gilles Veinstein and Henry Laurens

The idea of bringing together historians of medieval, early modern and modern European relations with the Islamic world is a good one, and it is sad that the distinguished author of the early modern section, Gilles Veinstein of the Collège de France, died around the time that this useful book appeared. A brief introduction by John Esposito rejects the facile concept of a ‘clash of civilisations’, famously set out by Samuel Huntington. If anything, the book tries to pull its readers towards the concept of a single ‘Islamo-Christian’ civilisation, itself an unsatisfactory term—one would have thought that the concept of a ‘civilisation’ with defined boundaries had departed the world with Arnold Toynbee. While they agree that Huntington’s view is a gross over-simplification, three historians with different perspectives are bound to produce a volume that shifts significantly in emphasis. John Tolan’s chapters are the broadest, since his main scholarly interest lies in the intellectual engagement between Christians and Muslims; but he has not shied away from treatment of trade relations, the political history of the reconquista, and even (though in a short section littered with errors) the significance of the first Portuguese advances into the Atlantic. Veinstein was primarily a scholar of the Ottoman world, and it is no surprise that his chapters on the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries should lay a strong emphasis on the Ottoman relationship with western Europe, and include authoritative coverage of what was happening in the Balkan areas that lay under Turkish rule. Henry Laurens, on the other hand, is particularly concerned with political developments in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and he offers more detail on the First and Second World Wars than the scale of the book perhaps allows; as a result his analysis of some important developments, such as the planning of the Suez Canal, seems quite compressed. Yet he manages to bring in a great amount of valuable material, such as the final defeat of the Barbary corsairs and the role of Anglo-Moroccan trade in the nineteenth century (without, however, citing the important work of Daniel Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira [1988]).

The End of Eschatology? Questions on the Future of Interfaith Relations - Part 1

Interfaith relations are facing serious road-blocks – socio-ethical and theological – on their way into the future. Some of the former threaten peace and justice, while some of the latter question whether God can be viewed in personal terms. In this context, “eschatology” proves to be an unsatisfactory term, and to eschaton is not a New Testament term at all. Telos, as both fulfilment and Person (so G. B. Caird), and teleiosis (as “bringing to wholeness”) are more promising, especially in the context of diverse world faiths and of the earth’s limited physical future.

The Initial Appearance of the Cranial Nerves and Related Neuronal Migration in Staged Human Embryos

The initial development of the cranial nerves was studied in 245 human embryos of stages 10–23 (4–8 postfertilizational weeks). Significant findings in the human embryo include the following. (1) Neuronal migration is a characteristic feature in the development of all the cranial nerves at stages 13–18, with the exception of the somatic efferent group. (2) The somatic efferent and the visceral efferent neurons are arranged respectively in ventrolateral and ventromedial columns (stages 13–17). (3) The ventrolateral column gives rise to somatic efferent nuclei; the neurons of the hypoglossal nerve develop rapidly and show a segmental organization as four roots that innervate three of the four occipital somites (stage 13); the abducent nucleus becomes displaced rostrally by a change in the rhombomeric pattern at stage 16. (4) The ventromedial column, originally continuous in rhombomeres 2–7, gives rise to visceral efferent and pharyngeal efferent nuclei. (5) All the ‘true’ cranial nerves (III–XII) are recognizable by stage 16. (6) In a primary migration the visceral efferent neurons proceed mediolaterally and accumulate dorsolaterally as nuclei (stages 13, 14); they differentiate into salivatory nuclei (stages 16, 17). (7) A secondary migration involves the pharyngeal efferent neurons (of nerves V and IX–XI), which also proceed mediolaterally and then form ventrolateral nuclei (stages 17, 18). (8) The facial complex shows a distinctive development in that its neural crest arises from the lateral wall of the neural folds/tube. Moreover, the migration of its pharyngeal efferent neurons is delayed, which may be related to the formation of the internal genu, and the motor nucleus begins to appear only at stage 23. (9) The sequence of appearance of afferent constituents is: cranial ganglia (stage 12), mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus (stage 15), vestibular nuclei (stages 18–22), and cochlear nuclei (stage 19). The unsatisfactory term special is avoided and the term pharyngeal for air-breathing vertebrates replaces branchial. The six functional categories used here are vestibulocochlear, somatic afferent, visceral afferent, visceral efferent, pharyngeal efferent, and somatic efferent, together with appropriate abbreviations. The cardiac and hypoglossal neural crests are included, and it is emphasized that all the ectodermal placodes develop within the ‘ectodermal ring’.

Fundamentalism and the Secular Society

FUNDAMENTALISM IS AN UNSATISFACTORY TERM, but it is widely used to describe a militant piety that has developed in every major religion during the 20th century. The aim of fundamentalists-be they Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Sikh, Hindu, or Buddhist-is to bring God and/or religion from the sidelines to which they have been relegated in secular culture and back to centre stage. It constitutes a widespread rebellion against secular modernity. In every country where a western-style government has been established, a fundamentalist counterculture has developed alongside it in deliberate reaction, aiming to create a sacred enclave of pure faith in a world that seems increasingly hostile to religion.Hence every single fundamentalist movement that I have studied in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam has been rooted in fear, convinced that the secular, liberal establishment wants to wipe out religion. Each movement has developed in a symbiotic relationship with a modernity and secularism that is experienced as invasive and aggressive. The more fundamentalists are attacked, the more extreme they become, because the assault convinces them that they are correct in their assumption, and that the modern world truly wants to annihilate them and their religion. This is not necessarily paranoid. Jewish fundamentalism became especially prevalent after the Nazi Holocaust and after the October War of 1973, and in the Muslim world, secularism has often been imposed so aggressively-by such reformers as Ataturk, the shahs of Iran, or Gemal Abdul Nasser-that it has seemed an evil, lethal ideology.Modernity has always been problematic. When the western countries began to develop their modern, secular institutions in the 16th century, they were engulfed in three centuries of bloody revolution, dictatorships, anomie, exploitation of women and children, and violent wars of religion. We are watching a similar process in countries that are making the painful rite of passage to modernity today. In some Muslim countries, there are special difficulties. In the west, the modern spirit was characterized by two essential qualities: independence and innovation. In the Muslim world, however, modernization did not come with independence but with colonial subjugation; and the west was so far ahead that there could be no innovation-only imitation. So the wrong ingredients are going into the modern spirit there.Fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon, dedicated to fighting the secular state. It is part of the modern world and it is not going to fade away. We must, therefore, deal with it more intelligently than we have done hitherto. Contrary to much popular opinion, Islam is not more disposed towards fundamentalism than other faiths; in fact, it was the last of the three Abrahamic traditions to develop a fundamentalist strain. Nor is there anything in Islam that is inherently hostile to modernity. Much of the terrorism that disturbs us at present is Arab, and Arabs comprise only about 20 percent of Muslims worldwide. Fundamentalism is not necessarily violent; most fundamentalists are simply trying to live an embattled religious life and do not take part in acts of terror. …

The Case Against Apoptosis

Apoptosis is not as dominant a process in cell loss from normal tissues and tumours as has sometimes been claimed. The term 'programmed cell death', which many authors regard as synonymous with apoptosis, is an unsatisfactory term that is best avoided. In studies on the response of tumours to drug and radiation treatment, the use of apoptosis assays concentrates attention on the first decade of cell killing (0–90%), whereas the outcome of treatment depends on multi-log cell kill; an assay of clonogenic cell survival is the appropriate method for this purpose. Loss of colony-forming ability is the key event in treated tumour cells, and the appearance of morphological and molecular evidence of apoptosis is probably downstream from this event. Published studies that have compared apoptosis and cell survival responses in tumour cells have generally failed to find a causal relationship.

Pocket Handbook of Psychiatric Drug Treatment, 2nd ed.

Pocket Handbook of Psychiatric Drug Treatment, 2nd ed.

The "Outing" of Walter Pater

A subject that biographers and critics once avoided altogether or approached only with great circumspection, Pater's sexuality has become an explicit and even a major topic of recent Pater studies. The story of Pater's erotic relationship in 1874 with an Oxford undergraduate, though apparently known to some of his contemporaries, has only recently been reconstructed and documented, the fullest account being that of Billie Inman. And Pater's encoded sexuality has been made a central topic of critical discourse by Richard Dellamora, who has decoded several of Pater's texts using the method of gender criticism. To the degree that the conclusions of these studies rely on demonstration, they raise questions that are of as much interest as the conclusions themselves. These questions concern the nature of the available evidence, the manner in which the evidence is interpreted, and the suppositions that render one interpretation more persuasive that another. The case of Pater also tests a terminological distinction favored by Dellamora and other gender critics. Because all-male institutions have traditionally discouraged overtly sexual relationships between men, gender criticism distinguishes "homosociality" from "homosexuality" in order to oppose them. For Patter, however, the "homosocial" and the "homosexual" form a continuum that recalls the erotic sensibility of the Greeks he admired. It is therefore difficult to describe Pater's sexual temperament using such language. Probably the least unsatisfactory term would be "homoerotic." It is more inclusive than "homosexual," and as a verbal formation it has the advantage of being purely Greek.

Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in patients with non-ulcer dyspepsia.

Non-ulcer dyspepsia is an unsatisfactory term, as it describes a spectrum of conditions. The term is used for patients who have a normal upper endoscopy, macroscopically, but who have persistent upper gastrointestinal symptoms. Patients with non-ulcer dyspepsia respond to a wide variety of treatments, and there is a strong placebo response. Fifty per cent of these patients are shown to have Helicobacter pylori present if biopsy specimens are taken at endoscopy. Previous studies suggest that H. pylori eradication improves patients' symptoms. In a study from our unit we have shown that, in the short term, patients' symptoms improved with treatment, independent of H. pylori status. However, at 1-year follow-up, prolonged improvement of symptoms was observed only in patients in whom the organism had been eradicated.

Different types of segmental sclerosing glomerular lesions in six experimental models of proteinuria.

From 133 to 615 glomeruli were examined in sections of kidneys from each of 60 animals, representing six rodent models of proteinuria. Particular attention was paid to the position of segmental lesions. Lewis rats given sheep anti-rat glomerular basement membrane antibodies had lesions almost exclusively at the glomerulo-tubular junction. Wistar rats on a diet of 24 per cent casein or with subtotal nephrectomy and a diet of 24 per cent soya had lesions mainly at the hilum. Wistar rats given bovine serum albumin had global lesions but virtually no segmental lesions. Wistar rats given puromycin aminonucleoside had lesions at the glomerulo-tubular junction and global mesangial abnormalities shortly after the treatment but later developed segmental lesions at all parts of the glomerulus. Untreated BUF/Mna rats had lesions at the glomerulo-tubular junction early in life but later had lesions at all parts of the glomerulus. Untreated NZB/NZW hybrid mice had various types of glomerulonephritis and also had lesions at the glomerulo-tubular junction. These findings showed that (1) segmental lesions at the glomerulo-tubular junction, or glomerular tip, occur in experimental animals, a fact not previously reported, and these tip changes are a common feature in several different models of proteinuria; (2) hilar segmental lesions are seen in conditions with hyperfiltration of protein; and (3) segmental lesions at various parts of the glomerulus are seen in some models of proteinuria and probably indicate late effects of random toxic damage to the glomerulus. Thus, there are at least three different types of segmental glomerular lesions in experimental animals--tip, hilar, and random--with different morphology and pathogenesis. It is likely that these findings can be extended to human renal diseases with segmental glomerular lesions. This will help to clarify the controversial and unsatisfactory term focal segmental glomerulosclerosis.

Industrial Archaeology in Britain

A new interdisciplinary field of study came into being in Britain in the mid-1950s under the rather clumsy name of‘industrial archaeology, ’ after a gestation period of nearly a century. A small number of energetic men, most of them with a fair knowledge of either technology or architecture, assisted in its birth, urging the crying need of investigating, recording, and, if possible, preserving the remains of industrial sites which were in imminent danger of deterioration, if not demolition. Although academic circles in general regarded it with indifference, amateurs, partly out of patriotism and partly out of curiosity, were not hesitant in responding to the appeal made by the pioneers, either individually or as members of local groups, by devoting their leisure time to voluntary research in field evidences left by industrial activities during the Industrial Revolution.Industrial archaeology grew rapidly in Britain, bringing about in the 1960s the publication of a national periodical, not to speak of many books and pamphlets on the subject, as well as the establishment of a national system of surveying and recording industrial monuments and the holding of annual meetings of professional industrial archaeologists on a national scale. It was in 1973 that the Association for Industrial Archaeology was founded in Britain“to promote the study of Industrial Archaeology and encourage improved standards of recording, research, publication and conservation.” Industrial archaeology in Britain then may be regarded as having come of age in the space of about twenty years after its birth, with the result that it became impossible for established disciplines to ignore it.The vigorous growth of industrial archaeology in Britain could not fail to produce a deep impression on fellow researchers overseas. Not only in Europe but also in the Americas, Australia, India and Japan, an enhanced interest in the industrial heritage is noted, even though the number of those concerned with it is smaller than in Britain, and the unsatisfactory term, ‘industrial archaeology, ’has spread all over the world, having been translated verbatim into the respective languages of other nations. In Japan, ‘Sangyo-Kokogakukai (Industrial Archaeology Society)’was established in 1977, its membership totalling 485 as of September, 1984.It may not be amiss to say that industrial archaeology has developed in Britain as the study of the remains of manufacturing, mining, engineering and transport in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with special attention focused on their preservation in situ, through the cooperation of innumerable unpaid amateurs. But not a few specialists argue that it must remove the limitations of time and scope, and take up the centuries prior to the two centuries mentioned above, and also the twentieth century in particular, including agricultural and social monuments in addition to those already familiar to industrial archaeologists in general. The present reporter cannot help entertaining apprehensions that, in an age of economic recession, industrial archaeology in Britain will lose its two well-known characteristics, i.e., the cooperation of an enormous number of amateurs and the priority given to the preservation in situ of industrial monuments, if such an extention of time should prove to be absolutely necessary.

The Dimlington Stadial/Dimlington Chronozone: a proposal for naming the main glacial episode of the Late Devensian in Britain

The term Dimlington Stadial is proposed as a climatostratigraphic name fer the main glacial episode of the Late Devensian in Britain, in preference to stratigraphically unsatisfactory terms, such as Late Devensian Glaciation (which includes the Windermere Interstadial and the Loch Lomond Stadial), icesheet glaciation or maximum of ice expansion, that are currently in use. The name is selected from a site on the East Yorkshire coast and refers to the interval between 26,000 and 13,000 radiocarbon years B.P. Dimlington Chronozone is the formal chronostratigraphic term for the equivalent period of time, and comprises the main part of the Late Devensian Sub‐stage.

The Treatment of American Indian Materials in Contemporary American Poetry

The use of American Indian oral literature as a source of inspiration or as a guide to composition, and the continuing attempts at translation from this literature have grown rapidly in the past ten years. While there have been efforts at direct translation of Indian songs and poems for many years, it is only a comparatively recent development which has seen some contemporary American poets not only beginning to formulate new approaches to translation but also discovering the possibilities of using some aspects of American Indian oral culture in their own original poetry. Ethnopoetics has emerged as a general term to describe a poetic movement of sorts dedicated to the exploration of the potential of primitive oral literature and its translation into English. Like many general labels, it is an incomplete and unsatisfactory term with which to describe the wide variety, and varying quality, of work being produced by poets associated with the movement; however it is a term adopted by the poets themselves and is respected as such.

Granulomas of the liver.

Summary The authors personally studied 138 patients with liver granulomas: seventy-five (54%) had sarcoidosis, twenty-six (19%) had primary biliary cirrhosis, twenty-three (17%) had miscellaneous recognizable disorders and fourteen (10%) were undiagnosed. The modes of presentation, the clinical, biochemical and radiological features are compared, and the course of each disease is followed. The undiagnosed group were frequently middle-aged men presenting with abdominal pain, fever and hepato-splenomegaly. The unsatisfactory term granulomatous hepatitis, if used, should be reserved for this undiagnosed residue until follow-up reveals a more definite aetiology.

Amyloidosis and a Periodic Disease

ABSTRACT To the Editor:— The title of an editorial, Hereditary Amyloidosis? (JAMA184:418 [May 4] 1963), need not have had a question mark. One form of it is heritable. No reference was made, however, to a different view pertaining to the possible genetic relation of amyloidosis to familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) as expressed in a communication to The Journal only 2 months before (183:879, 1963). The term FMF itself only adds to the confusion of nine other unsatisfactory terms for the disorder, including periodic peritonitis. Abdominal pain and other symptoms, not fever, are the prominent features. The same disorder, called Armenian disease, also is familial among Armenians, who are not strictly a Mediterranean people, and it occurs worldwide in persons of other ethnic origin. A better name is desired. Mediterranean fever, moreover, is a synonym—a poor one—for brucellosis.Data presented by the Tel Aviv physicians to unify periodic peritonitis

Liquid-crystalline structures in polypeptide solutions

INTRODUCTION IN this paper the remarkable properties, including the very high optical rotatory power, of a liquid crystalline phase which is formed by certain polypeptide solutions will be discussed. Although liquid crystals have attracted much interest since their discovery in I888r (a recent review article contained as many as 475 references)* many physical chemists seem to be unfamiliar with the subject. It may therefore be helpful to state briefly what is meant by this rather unsatisfactory term. Most crystals pass directly at their melting point from the crystalline state to an isotropic liquid, but many crystalline solids pass through one or more mesophases which, though birefriogeot, are more or less fluid. These mesophases have various degrees of orgaoisation but most can be described by one or other of two terms introduced by Friedel : smectic and oematic.3 In the smectic structure the molecules are arranged in layers, which are themselves arranged in families of closed surfaces known as Dupio cyclides, which give rise to focal tonics which are visible in a polarization microscope and can be used for the identification of such structures. These smectic structures and the microscopic patterns associated with them have been adequately described elsewhere.‘4 The oematic structure, which is the only one of the two classes with which this paper is concerned, has a lower degree of organization that the smectic; there are no layers, but the molecules are arranged with their long axes parallel, while being free to move relative to one another in the direction of these axes. Friedel also described a third, though less familiar, type of structure, met with chiefly in esters and ethers of cholesterol, which is related to the oematic structure but which has a higher degree of organization. IO what follows it will be found that these last have much in common with those which have been found to occur in certain polypeptide solutions. A given material may form one or several mesophases each of which is stable between two well defined and reproducible transition temperatures and the temperature range over which any one is stable may cover a considerable number of degrees. These mesomorphic forms are not only produced on heating certain solids but with some substances (e.g. soaps, and the polypeptides to be discussed in what follows) on adding a limited amount of a suitable solvent. In these cases the mesophase may be stable over a considerable and reproducible range of concentration, which will, however, depend on the temperature. Such mesophases, whether formed by changes of temperature or addition of solvent, are generally called liquid crystals or liquid crystalline

ECZEMA AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

DERMATOLOGIC conditions classified perforce under the comprehensive and admittedly unsatisfactory term "eczema" constitute one of the chief problems encountered in the practice of medicine. True enough, as diagnostic methods have improved, the number of clinical conditions so designated has become fewer. Nevertheless, the various types of chronic dermatitis commonly classified as eczema must be included in such a study as that reported here. The primary purpose of this paper is to present evidence for a possible relationship between a disturbance in essential fatty acid metabolism and the occurrence of eczema. <h3>FACTORS CONCERNED WITH THE NORMAL INTEGRITY OF THE SKIN</h3> In light of the many significant advances made in the field of nutrition during the last two decades, it is rather remarkable that relatively little is known regarding the nutritional factors which are responsible for maintenance of a healthy skin. One of the most notable contributions to the knowledge on this

The Moths of South Africa

FAUNAL lists of the Lepidoptera Heterocera do exist, but their gross inaccuracy renders them almost valueless; and the number of comprehensive works presenting a really precise critical revision of the known moths of any particular part of the world is deplorably small. The only publication that deals in any way extensively with the moths of Africa is Seitz's “Macrolepidoptera of the World”, but this excludes the Pyralidæ, a family on which Prof. Janse specialises, and the other small moths covered by the somewhat unsatisfactory term Microlepidoptera.

The Adze and the Ungrooved Axe of the New England Indians

Under the unsatisfactory term celt are included two distinct classes of stone implements adze blades and ungrooved axe or hatchet blades. In the former class the cutting edge was at right angles to the haft, while in the latter class the edge was parallel to the haft. The ungrooved axe, as a rule, is readily distinguished from the adze by its symmetrical form (compare pl. xi and xii). Ungrooved axes are distributed throughout a large portion of America, and are found also in many other sections of the world. So far as known the methods of hafting were similar in the various regions. In central Europe the smaller stone blades were usually inserted into a fore-haft of antler which was fitted to a hole or perforation in the wooden haft. Antler fore-hafts were sometimes used