UN Human Development Research Articles

The Institutional Trap of the Reproduction of Intellectual Capital

Purpose of the study. The inability to avoid digital segregation in access to educational technologies and content at the level of individuals, families, communities, and states plunges entire nations and peoples into an institutional trap (lock-in effect) of the reproduction of intellectual capital. To understand the degree of immersion in such an institutional trap, it is necessary to search for appropriate indicators and develop a new index based on them, which would increase the ability of the UN Human Development Index to reflect the level of development of society, considering the realities of the fourth technological revolution.Materials and methods. One of the essential parts of the Human Development Index is the composite index “Education for universal development”, which includes such quantitative indexes as the average duration of education and the expected duration of education of the population. Unfortunately, these indexes do not give an idea of the quality of the education provided: the availability of modern educational technologies, the accessibility to the latest educational content, the ability to interactively change national educational content, the possibility of using information and communication technologies for education, and more. The “Digital segregation of access to education” index, proposed by the authors, is closely related to the “Education for all development index” and expands its scope by including individuals with higher education who can form the core of research in the future specific country.Results. The insignificant fact of uncontrolled migration of an individual as a carrier of some particle of national intellectual capital creates a problem much more systemic than a simple “brain drain”. The countries from which the brain drain occurs not only lose specific gifted individuals and the individual intellectual capital associated with them but also lose the ability to reproduce the joint intellectual capital of the nation within the country. In the conditions of open borders and general globalization, there are one-sided transfer funnels that allow the holder of individual intellectual capital to leave the donor country and be integrated into the scientific and production structure and the general national capital of the recipient country without any obstacles. At the same time, the reverse movement of intellectual capital, as a rule, is impossible. The authors describe the mechanism of a one-sided funnel during the migration of intellectual capital (individual and national), which triggers positive feedback that prevents the donor country from increasing national intellectual capital and forms an institutional trap for the reproduction of intellectual capital.Conclusion. The authors continue to work on optimizing and supplementing a set of indicators for inclusion in the composite index “Digital segregation of access to education” and establish the weight of indicators in the index. The open questions are as follows: the search for a set of indicators, the formation of a necessary and sufficient set of indicators, the identification of correlation dependencies and the establishment of a close relationship between indicators, the development of a hypothesis about the unevenness of indicators, an expert assessment of establishing the weight of indicators in the index, determining the method for aggregating a set of indicators into an index.

Why life expectancy over-predicts crude death rate

Life expectancy is widely used and reported; for example, the UN Human Development Index uses life expectancy as a key component. But many users of period life expectancy do not understand and interpret life expectancy as demographers do. In particular, period life expectancy almost always over-predicts the crude death rate. Indeed, in most observed populations, the annual deaths recorded are always less than one may expect in the corresponding stationary population. To explain this over-prediction, in this paper we analyze how deviations from stationarity affect the crude death rate. We use theory to show that small deviations from the stationary age structure (as high as 20% at each age) always lead to over-prediction. Then we examine global data to show that over-prediction is widespread, occurring even in populations where the deviation from stationarity is large. Finally, we show that populations around the world and over many decades have age structures that are almost always far from stationary (or indeed, stability). But we also show that the deviation is often due to the demographic transition, with population bulges at the middle ages where mortality is low.

Analyzing The Role of Migration Phenomenon on The Human Development Index of The City, Case Study: Bojnord City

One of the UN's Human Development Reports on Migration shows that the negative impact of migrants on host communities is inconsistent with reality. The main message of the Human Development Report is that the benefits of human development can be reaped by reducing barriers to mobility and improving the treatment of migrants. The present study is done, using a descriptive-analytical method of applied studies. This study tries to calculate and analyze the Human Development Index (HDI) during the official general census of the country in 2006, 2011 and 2016 and do a comparative study among "population of the province", "urban areas of the county" and "immigrants" in the county of Bojnord, using two possible methods of calculation and analysis of this index (Natural and geometric method in addition to changes in the type of data in accordance with the old and new method proposed by the United Nations and contained in valid scientific texts in calculating the human development index). According to the findings, migration has not reduced the human development index, and has also grown at all three levels. On the other hand, the results show that migration is not necessarily associated with negative consequences and, conversely, has been able to accelerate development in the host society, and this is because the nature of modern migration is more related to improving one's position in society and human mobility than simply respond to the basic instincts of survival. The index calculated for immigrants in 2016 (0.752) was more than the other two periods (0.744 and 0.7); While the number of immigrants entering the urban areas of the county was less than the previous two periods. In general, the development index of 2011 and 2016 is more than 2006, due to the opportunities created by the centralization of Bojnord in 2005.

Playdoyer for an EU Strategy Towards Reform of UNSC

In 2021, EU declared it as a policy to reform the United Nations Security Council, but failed to adopt a strategy. Thus, this paper outlines a three-tiered approach toward UNSC reform, consisting of a European approach encompassing (1) UNFCCC-diplomacy (2) Further IMF Reform (3) energy governance (4) Cost￾Benefit Analysis of UN human development goals. The second element is an incorporation of Germany’s UNSC bid into EU’s overall strategizing. The third element is further development of EU’s official strategy, which henceforth has relied on environmental diplomacy and leveraging the EU’s purse on development aid. In doing so, the paper evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of EU’s role within the four multilateral policy areas and suggest their mutual interdependence. The underlying problem is a mix of blockage of thinking and the development of consciousness about the supranational actors’ “duties” rather than an absence of political ambition. Thus, the EU needs to be better organized, and more strategic about its UNSC bid.

ადამიანკაპიტალის გაზომვის კონცეპტუალური ასპექტები

The hyper-competitive global economy of the twenty-first century has become an era of innovation, technology, productivity, new knowledge and skills and focused on sustainable and inclusive growth. Human capital is one of the fundamental factors for ensuring sustainable and inclusive growth. The process of human capital formation is long and is influenced by many factors. Its measurement is one of the actual issues. The article discusses the analysis of both theoretical concepts of human capital measurement, as well as measurement problems. We consider three approaches for human capital measurement: The Cost-Based Approach - measures human capital by looking at the stream of past investments undertaken by individuals, households, employers and governments. The Income-Based Approach - measures human capital by looking at the stream of future earnings that human capital investment generates over the lifetime of a person. The approach elaborated by Jacob Mincer is empirically implemented by explaining the logarithm of the wage of a worker from her/his educational attainment and labour market experience (which is another source of human capital formation), while controlling for a set of background characteristics such as gender, type of labour contract (e.g. full-time or part-time, fixed term or tenure). The Indicators-based Approach - recently are widely used for measurement of human capital. 1. The UN Human Development Index (HDI), which combines measures of average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development, i.e. health, education and knowledge, and standards of living. The Human Development Index (HDI) provides a single index measure which aims to capture three key dimensions of human development: an access to knowledge, long and healthy life and a sufficient standard of living; 2. World Bank Human Capital Index (HCI); 3. The PISA, which tests 15-16 year olds students for their cognitive skills in terms of reading, mathematics, science and problem solving; 4. The PIAAC, which tests adults for their competencies in terms of literacy, numeracy and ability to solve problems in technology-rich environments. The PISA and the PIAAC are new measures and express cognitive skills and abilities of students. A new approaches of human capital measurement clarifies what indicators can be considered to precisely measure more accurate human capital. The paper presents an empirical analysis of the dynamics of human capital of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries and draws relevant conclusions. For this purposes we consider several measurements of human capital: Human Capital Index (http://databank.worldbank.org/data); Human Development Index (http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi), Public Expenditure on education (http://databank.worldbank.org/data) and (http://data.uis.unesco.org). Based on the analysis of the values ​​of the indicators and characteristics discussed above the following can be clearly identified: The higher government spending on education, the higher value of PISA (conclusion are similar regarding HCI and HDI). Georgia's favorable positions allows us to draw certain conclusions: the country requires active support from the government to improve problematic situation in terms of both healthcare and education. It is necessary to have an effective educational system that contributes to raising the level of education in the country (especially at the general education level), attracting qualified personnel to schools, supporting science, introducing scientific and technological achievements, analyzing and evaluating global technological trends. The high level of education of the population is a prerequisite for the development of demand for high-tech products and stimulates the creation of innovative products and processes. The current picture shows the impact of the pandemic on human capital through increasing mortality (which is related to the spread of infection), increasing government spending (related to manage the spread of the virus); It is clear that there is a transmission of the pandemic on the economic equilibrium (through the impact on demand and supply). At the same time, however there is the effect that we can consider as a positive result - acceleration of digitization. Since the process of formation and accumulation of human capital is not short-term, quantitative assessment of the impact will be possible after a certain period of time (the time lag should be taken into account); Keywords: Human Capital; Human Capital Index; Human Development Index; Government Expenditure on Education; PISA. JEL Codes: E24, J24, J41

A statistical model to forecast and simulate energy demand in the long-run

This research aims to design a model to forecast and simulate aggregated world energy demand at distant horizons in time. This is done by estimating statistically a simplified interrelated model for the three variables considered, total primary Energy, world population and GDP. The approach intends to offer a complementary perspective to current practice, based on simulating energy demand conditional on GDP and population. The model is based on long historical series spanning the years (1900;2017) available from renowned researchers and institutions in their respective fields. The estimated models allow a forecast of future energy demand and a risk/sensitivity analysis. Alternative solutions and simulation methods are carried out to assess the robustness of the results derived. These forecasts are compared to the results of key relevant roadmaps put forward in the literature - in the range (330;408) EJ/yr for final energy consumption -, the general conclusion being that the aforementioned roadmaps assume sizeable efficiency savings, relying mainly on electrification and renewable energies deployment, that depart significantly from historical trends embodied in the model estimated - 900 EJ/yr on average, and 600 EJ/yr under favourable assumptions. These results jeopardise the unbounded GDP-growth paradigm, suggesting a replacement by alternative welfare measures as suggested by the UN human development index, the prosperity approach, and related standards.

Democratizing education: Open schooling engaged the less privileged in environmental sciences.

Democratizing learning is essential for environmental sustainability. Less privileged areas are crucial in this regard. Informal education has great such potential, but often fails to reach the less privileged, and to document learning. With the objective to identify and counter these issues, we here report on EDU-ARCTIC, an informal open schooling course in environmental science, aimed at European teachers with teenage pupils. Of the 1,181 teachers who enrolled, 73% were females and 43% were from less privileged nations (according to UN Human Development Index). This is a higher share of less privileged (females) than is the case for the general population of Europe. Teachers from less privileged nations also participated in more project activities than did those from more privileged nations, apart from in urban areas. For the project period, the teachers reported a significant increase in all the three categories of aspired learning outcomes for their pupils. We conclude that courses like ours can increase teenagers’ literacy and engagement in science and environmental issues, not the least in less privileged areas. Deliberate efforts are required to reach these target groups, who may be less inclined to join on their own.

Influence of the Built Environment on Physical Activity Choices among Emirati Male and Female Adolescents: An Examination of Parents’ and Students’ Perceptions

The UN Human Development Report 2020 ranked the United Arab Emirates (UAE) as having achieved ‘very high human development’ and as being at the 31st position among all countries. Despite this, the ever increasing obesity rates among Emirati youth, higher than international standards, is alarming. This research aims at identifying how different perceptions of the built environment by parents and adolescents are likely to affect physical activity (PA) choices among male and female Emirati youth. This can help inform better health and education policies to achieve three of the interconnected UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), namely good quality health and well-being, quality education, and gender equality, that the UAE strives to achieve. Responses from 335 students (aged 14–20) from six schools and 250 parent responses in the Al Ain region of Abu Dhabi Emirate were used to understand the mean variation in perception of five built environment constructs. Further, multinomial logit regression was used to assess the health condition using the perception, behavior, and built environment measures. Results indicate that Emirati males perceive the built environment factors as barriers more than female adolescents. Parents perceive street crossing (p < 0.016) and sidewalk characteristics (p < 0.020) to be more of a hindrance. Traffic exposure, self-reported physical activity, and walkability near homes and schools significantly affect Emirati adolescents’ health conditions. Recommendations are made for various stakeholders including parents, school authorities, Abu Dhabi Municipality and Transportation, and the Urban Planning department on ways to enhance the built environment and encourage PA and well-being of Emirati adolescents.

The Influence of the Quality of Education on the Knowledge Economy: the Czech Republic in International Comparison

The knowledge economy consists in the creation of added value based on the use of knowledge not only due to manual production but especially due to the growing importance of education and the use of scientifi c knowledge in terms of the overall competitiveness of the country. The education of the population is thus a crucial factor determining the level of economic development and quality of life. The educational structure of the population aff ects the performance of the whole economy, as well as the performance of individual companies. Human development indicators, which are published in the UN Human Development Report, include education quality indicators. The paper aims to perform a comparative analysis of education quality indicators in the Czech Republic and an international comparison. Based on selected statistical results of comparative analysis, determine the order of states in the evaluation of the quality of education. Furthermore, using the results, compile a SWOT analysis of the quality of education in the Czech Republic, based on which the fundamental problems of Czech education will be defi ned and recommendations for improving the quality of education in the Czech Republic as one of the key determinants of the knowledge economy.

Socio-economic aspects of human capital development in Russia and China

Innovative cooperation is an important component of mutually beneficial bilateral cooperation. Such interaction between the two major global players such as Russia and China requires a well-balanced human development policy. The article reveals the complexity of the evolution of hu-man capital in RF and China. Based on the comparison of the socio-economic indicators and data from the UN Human Development Report, the author considers strengths and weaknesses of existing models of human development. The article shows the dominance of Russian Federation in economic and social indicators, such as per capita GDP, disposable income, inequality index, gender gap, education level. While important features of the modern China progress are making this country more capable in accumulating and making proper use of human potential. The main advantages of development of PRC are rapid growth of population incomes, thoughtful elimination of poverty and illiteracy, growth of the education level and life expectancy. The author highlights weaknesses in the development of partner countries: population decline, age and gender imbalances, significant gap in living standards, increasing burden on the healthcare system, drop in real incomes and insufficient funding for education and research. According to the human development index, the gap between Russia and China in the world ranking at this stage is 34 positions. However, the dynamics of changes in living standards over the past 30 years indicates a short time left until Russia remains a leader. Building a strategic long-term partnership with China requires from Russia more balanced policy in use of human capital.

How are rapid diagnostic tests for infectious diseases used in clinical practice: a global survey by the International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC)

Novel rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) offer huge potential to optimise clinical care and improve patient outcomes. In this study, we aim to assess the current patterns of use around the world, identify issues for successful implementation and suggest best practice advice on how to introduce new tests. An electronic survey was devised by the International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC) Rapid Diagnostics and Biomarkers working group focussing on the availability, structure and impact of RDTs around the world. It was circulated to ISAC members in December 2019. Results were collated according to the UN human development index (HDI). 81 responses were gathered from 31 different countries. 84% of institutions reported the availability of any test 24/7. In more developed countries, this was more for respiratory viruses, whereas in high and medium/low developed countries, it was for HIV and viral hepatitis. Only 37% of those carrying out rapid tests measured the impact. There is no ‘one-size fits all’ solution to RDTs: the requirements must be tailored to the healthcare setting in which they are deployed and there are many factors that should be considered prior to this.

Environment and health as a driver of transformation

Abstract As technology progresses, social inequality grows, the gap widens, and the environment continues to suffer. Furthermore, the social environment in societies is “ruffled” and does not appear to be constructive toward well-being. New inequalities are emerging in the availability of technology, climate change, education. The achievement reports on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also point out to the need of reviewing individual indicators. The UN Human Development Report estimates that children in highly developed countries have a 55% chance of obtaining high education, as opposed to children born in underdeveloped countries where only 3% of them have a chance of high education. In underdeveloped countries, according to the UN data, 17% of them die by the age of 20, while in developed countries this is 1%. The gap in the opportunities of young people in different living environments is quite pronounced nowadays. If this process does not get stopped, it can be irreversible. The directions of transformation necessary to achieve the SDGs, while respecting the principles of equality, quality of life preservation and improvement, are divided into six groups. Transformations should aim at: an educated workforce, an innovative economy, gender equality and social protection, health and wellbeing for all, universal health care and support for healthy lifestyles. Transformation is also a prerequisite for: climate neutrality, circular economy, decarbonisation, renewable energy and industrial development. Sustainable agriculture and food production, conservation and restoration of natural resources, as well as sustainable, green urban environments and support for small communities also require radical changes. An indispensable factor for transformation is that both digital and modern technologies align with sustainable development, respecting human rights privacy and social inclusion.

Assessing the relationship between sugarcane expansion and human development at the municipal level: A case study of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

Brazil has a long history of sugarcane development and since the 2000s has undergone a significant increase in land cultivated with sugarcane. Policy-driven demand and a growing international market mean that sugarcane cultivation in Brazil is expected to increase in the coming years. Rising land prices and strengthened environmental legislation in São Paulo state – where the bulk of production occurs – have led farmers and investors to seek new land to cultivate. As a result, the Centre- West region, including the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, has become an epicentre for sugarcane expansion in Brazil. While the social, economic and environmental impacts of sugarcane have been well documented for the state of São Paulo, much less is known about these impacts in new sugarcane frontier regions. This paper addresses an important gap in the literature through an assessment of the relationship between human development and presence or absence of a sugar mill in municipalities in Mato Grosso do Sul. Drawing on the UN Human Development Index and the Social Responsibility Index of São Paulo, this paper develops a method to examine the relationship between the presence of sugarcane processing mills and human development at the municipal level in Mato Grosso do Sul. The paper finds evidence that municipalities with a mill perform relatively better in terms of human development than those without, but that municipalities with mills already performed relatively better than those without. This raises important questions about how are and where the socio-economic benefits of sugarcane materialise.

COVID-19 in the Caribbean small island developing states: lessons learnt from extreme weather events

The UN recognises 58 small island developing states, with 29 in the Caribbean.1 The World Bank classifies most of the Caribbean islands as middle-income or high-income countries, and the UN Human Development Index is generally categorised as high across the region (2018 values range between 0·7 and 0·8).2,3 Despite these positive development indicators, the Caribbean small island developing states share a common set of environmental, economic, and social vulnerabilities because of their absolute size and geographical remoteness.

Reforming of the ukrainian educational system in the context of transborder integration into the world academic space

This article analyzes the experience of forming of the world educational space in the context of transborder integration. The world practice of solving educational problems is considered, essential characteristics of integration processes for further implementation in the educational process of the national educational system are revealed. The reports of the Davos Economic Forum, the INSEAD International Business School, Cornell University and the World Intellectual Property Organization, the Roman Club, the UN Human Development Indexes and Indicators, the World Education Forum, and the Cambridge Assessment non-governmental organization are analyzed. It is confirmed, that reforming of the Ukrainian educational system in the process of integration into the world academic space is due to the development and implementation of the legislative and regulatory documentation in the educational and scientific process of domestic educational institutions. The interim results of the national profile ministry on reforming Ukraine's education system into the academic world are characterized: priorities for 2019 in reforming of Ukraine's educational system in the context of transborder integration and current plans - "To do list" changes - that will be implemented in the fields of education, science and innovation theory. It is stated, that these tasks actualize the increase of HEA and STD teachers’ professional and pedagogical competence. Thus, the Model educational program of organization and carrying out pedagogical workers’ advanced training in postgraduate pedagogical education establishments in the profile of coaches’ and primary school teachers’ basic competences include the following: andragogic, vocational-pedagogical, socio-civic, linguistic and communicative information-digital. It is determined, that the conducted analysis actualized another important teacher’ competence - scientific and methodical, its definition in the author's vision is formulated. The problems of human resources and labor migration in the context of contemporary globalization challenges and the cross-border integration of Ukraine into the world academic space are investigated and recommendations are given for their solution

Vidal’s Results and Cuba’s Ranking in the Human Development Index

This article deals with the ranking of Cuba in the UN Human Development Index, from the 1992 edition (with data for 1989) to the 2016 edition (with data for 2015)—the latest available. It shows the drastic oscillations in said ranking and concentrates on estimates of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, documenting their significant flaws. Until recently, there was not a serious conversion of official data on Cuban GDP per capita in pesos into GDP per capita in international dollars at purchasing parity power, and hence reliable comparisons with other countries were not feasible. Pavel Vidal’s study has advanced in that task and compared Cuba’s deterioration of GDP relative to nine Latin American countries of similar size. The substantial and growing economic crisis in Venezuela has had adverse repercussions for Cuba’s economy and social welfare. All these facts should be taken in account by the United Nations Development Program.

The Role of Water as a Non Traditional Security Challenge

Challenges such as climate change, water and environment or even food security were not considered under the traditional security paradigm. In 1994, the UN Human Development report brought to the forefront the need to shift focus to the concept of people‟s security and identified several essentials including economic, health and environment security. Water, which lies at the core of these essentials did not find adequate prominence and while „water wars‟ was under the subject of academic scrutiny, the concept of water security as a global challenge did not receive adequate attention. Currently, water and its inextricable relationship to energy, food and development, and political stability is placed at the core of every security debate. In 2015, leaders at the WEF in Davos ranked water as the No.1 risk to societies. The paper explores how a change in attitude is required from policy makers to the end user.

Global CO2 emission reduction policies and West African electricity system: Case for transformational access

Based on the UN Human Development Index, the West African sub-region holds one of lowest indices in development around the world. There is a glaring need for the sub-region to increase its electricity capacity; however, stringent global CO2 policies have ‘choking’ effects on the growth of the electricity sector in energy deprived countries, like the West African Member States. This study examines the West Africa electric power sector under a range of technological, economic, and policy-related uncertainties, positing that there is the need to frame policies from the premise of ‘need’ rather than a ‘circumstantial’ perspective, which, in this study, relates to the global policies on CO2 emission reduction. Though CO2 is the inevitable by-product of combusting fossil fuels to generate electricity, it should also be viewed from the perspective of its significant benefits as regards provision of social welfare of individuals. This study evaluated the broad strategies in policy formulation and implementation (top-down versus bottom-up analysis) and applied these strategies to examine investment decision versus pricing regime and electricity system value chain (upstream versus downstream analysis). System dynamics principles were used to forecast what future consumption will look like, which shows that there would be marked increase in demand followed by increased emission without intervention. This study concludes that global CO2 policy would need to be re-considered such that energy deprived countries, like those in West Africa, would be able to implement a sustainable development agenda through growth strategy of bottom-up approach to ‘free’ their electricity system for improved living standard, irrespective of climate change issues.

Disparidades internacionais e mercado interno: uma comparação entre as análises de Celso Furtado e as prescrições dos RDHs/PNUD/ONU

As análises de Celso Furtado demonstraram quais eram as travas que impedem, em cada contexto sócio-histórico, o desenvolvimento social e humano na América Latina em geral, e no Brasil, em particular. Essa investigação adota, então, uma perspectiva metodológica qualitativa realizada por meio de uma análise bibliográfica e documental, cujo objetivo é desvendar os sentidos e significados políticos das abordagens prospectivas de Celso Furtado e dos elaboradores dos Relatórios do Desenvolvimento Humano (RDHs) analisadas neste artigo. Cabe destacar que a diferença central entre essas duas formas de tratar o desenvolvimento está no modo como cada uma delas lida com o processo sócio-histórico no concernente aos bloqueios que se interpõem na construção de um devir valorizador das melhorias humanas.

Globally temporal transitions of blood lead levels of preschool children across countries of different categories of Human Development Index

In the past decades, efforts to eliminate lead from gasoline, paint and drinking water around the world have substantially reduced human blood lead levels. This study was therefore aimed at examining the global temporal trends in the blood lead levels of preschool children by the category of UN Human Development Index (HDI). In total, 103 blood lead records were retrieved from 51 articles searched from PubMed and Google Scholar, with study subjects aged up to 8years old. Collected preschool children blood lead levels were plotted chronologically by HDI category and their reciprocals were used in regression analysis against calendar year to establish their temporal transition trends in the past decades. Results show that the modes of blood lead level of the preschool children were reduced from 4–6μg/dL to 0.8–1.5μg/dL, from 6–15μg/dL to 3–6μg/dL and from 12–16 to 5–6μg/dL for the very high HDI countries, the high HDI countries and the medium/low HDI countries, respectively. The highest correlation coefficient, 0.849, between the reciprocal of blood lead level and the calendar year was found for the very high HDI countries. Based on the regression lines, the predicted preschool children mean blood lead levels in the year of 2030 are 0.74μg/dL, 2.21μg/dL and 2.86μg/dL, respectively, for the very high HDI countries, the high HDI countries and the medium/low HDI countries. Persistent differences in blood lead level prevailed among countries of different HDI category, suggesting the effects of disparities and inequalities, at the state level, on preschool children blood lead levels. Further action is warranted to reduce the already low environmental lead exposure to eliminate the developmental burden of lead on children through (1) identification of individual local factors for lead exposure and (2) averting health disparity and inequalities at the state level.