Unripe Berries Research Articles

Influence of altitudes and development stages on the chemical composition and antioxidant capacity of Andean blackberries (Rubus glaucus Benth)

BackgroundThe Andean blackberry (Rubus glaucus Benth), locally known as “Mora de Castilla,” is a high-altitude fruit rich in phytochemicals, mainly anthocyanins, with potent antioxidant properties. Although its chemical composition has been studied, the influence of altitude on its phytochemical profile and antioxidant capacity is still unclear. This research aimed to investigate the effects of development stages and altitude on the phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of this fruit.MethodsAndean blackberry fruits were collected at different altitudes and development stages in the central Andean region of Ecuador. An hydroalcoholic extraction was used to quantify the compounds and determine the total antioxidant activity, while solid phase extraction (SPE) was performed to separate anthocyanins from other compounds. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (HPLC-DAD/ESI-MSn) was used to identify anthocyanin and non-anthocyanin phenols, while total antioxidant capacity, total polyphenols, total flavonoid content, and total anthocyanin content were quantified spectrophotometrically.ResultsFlavonols and anthocyanins constitute the majority of the flavonoids identified in the Andean blackberry extracts, both in terms of peak areas and number of identified compounds, followed by ellagic and gallic acid derivatives, as well as phenolic acids, mainly hydroxycinnamic acids. Quercetin was identified as the predominant flavonol in unripe berries, where anthocyanins were not significantly present. On the contrary, in ripe berries, cyanidin and its glycosides stood out as the main anthocyanins and predominant compounds. We observed that in the early stages of ripening, the total polyphenol content predominates in the berries and is mainly responsible for their antioxidant capacity. However, as the fruit ripens, the total anthocyanin content increases, becoming the most prominent bioactive compounds in fully ripe berries.ConclusionThe results suggest that higher altitude environmental conditions may improve the composition, concentration of phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity of Andean blackberries. Overall, our findings highlight the high functional value of this fruit, supporting its health-protective effects when consumed regularly, either as fresh fruit or in nutraceutical form.

Assessment of the antioxidant and nutritive profile of the leaves and berries of Solanum nigrum and Solanum torvum Swart

The research focused on analyzing the antioxidant and nutritional properties of Solanum torvum leaves (STL) and berries (STF), as well as Solanum nigrum leaves (SNL) and berries (SNF). The study examined the basic nutritional composition, mineral content, metal presence, total phenolic compounds, and antioxidant capabilities of both plant species. Wild-harvested leaves and unripe berries of S. torvum and S. nigrum were cooked and ground for testing. Statistical analysis included the Student's T-test and calculations of mean ± SEM. Findings revealed that both species of Solanum are sources of dietary fibre, protein, and fats, along with essential minerals like sodium (Na), manganese (Mn), potassium (K), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) in different amounts. Notably, the leaves had higher iron content than the berries, indicating their potential superiority in addressing Iron Deficiency Anaemia. Antioxidant activity was highest in STF (61.34±1.05 mg/mL) for water-based extracts and SNL (42.86±1.49 mg/mL) for alcohol-based extracts, highlighting the impact of solvent choice on antioxidant measurement. STL exhibited the greatest phenolic concentration in water extracts, while STF had the highest in alcohol extracts (15.88±0.87 mg/g GAE). Additionally, palmitic acid was identified in SNL and STL, oleic acid (97.03 %, retention time: 10.00 min) in SNB, and Sitosterol (94.93 %, retention time: 26.82 min), a type of phytosterol, in STB. Considering the role of antioxidants in preventing lipid oxidation in food and their contribution to combating degenerative diseases, the study advocates for the potential use of these Solanum species as natural food additives to protect against oxidative damage.

Wood Fiber from Norway Spruce—A Stand-Alone Growing Medium for Hydroponic Strawberry Production

There is an increased interest in the hydroponic production of strawberries in protected cultivation systems, and it is, therefore, urgent to develop new, more sustainable growing media alternatives. This study investigated the physical properties of wood fiber produced from Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and peat:wood fiber substrate blends as well as the performance of the wood fiber in comparison to the industry standards, i.e., peat and coconut coir in the cultivation of hydroponic strawberry. Tray plants of the June-bearing strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cultivar ‘Malling Centenary’ were transplanted into five different growing media: a peat (80%) and perlite (20%) mixture, stand-alone (100%) coconut coir and three stand-alone (100%) Norway spruce wood fiber substrates (including coarse textured fibers with compact and loose packing density and compacted fine-textured fibers). Ripe strawberries were harvested and registered throughout the production season. The overall marketable yield was comparable across all the tested growing media; however, after 4 weeks of harvest, both coarse wood fiber and fine wood fiber showed better fruiting performance than the peat-perlite mixture. A trend for earlier berry maturation was observed for all wood fiber-based substrates. Plant parameters recorded after the end of production showed that plant height, number of leaves, and biomass production were higher in coarse wood fiber than in the peat-perlite mixture. Moreover, plants grown in wood fiber-based substrates had less unripe berries and flowers not harvested in comparison to both the peat and coir treatments.

RaspberrySet: Dataset of Annotated Raspberry Images for Object Detection

The RaspberrySet dataset is a valuable resource for those working in the field of agriculture, particularly in the selection and breeding of ecologically adaptable berry cultivars. This is because long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns have made it increasingly important for crops to be able to adapt to their environment. To assess the suitability of different cultivars or to make yield predictions, it is necessary to describe and evaluate berries’ characteristics at various growth stages. This process is typically carried out visually, but it can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, requiring significant expert knowledge. The RaspberrySet dataset was created to assist with this process, and it includes images of raspberry berries at five different stages of development. These stages are flower buds, flowers, unripe berries, and ripe berries. All these stages of raspberry images classified buds, damaged buds, flowers, unripe berries, and ripe berries and were annotated using ground truth ROI and presented in YOLO format. The dataset includes 2039 high-resolution RGB images, with a total of 46,659 annotations provided by experts using Label Studio software (1.7.1). The images were taken in various weather conditions, at different times of the day, and from different angles, and they include fully visible buds, flowers, berries, and partially obscured buds. This dataset is intended to improve the efficiency of berry breeding and yield estimation and to identify the raspberry phenotype more accurately. It may also be useful for breeding other fruit crops, as it allows for the reliable detection and phenotyping of yield components at different stages of development. By providing a homogenized dataset of images taken on-site at the Institute of Horticulture in Dobele, Latvia, the RaspberrySet dataset offers a valuable resource for those working in horticulture.

Detection of fruit maturity stage and yield estimation in wild blueberry using deep learning convolutional neural networks

This study looked at the development of six deep learning artificial neural network models for detecting ripeness stage in wild blueberries, along with developing models for yield estimation. The six networks used were YOLOv3, YOLOv3-SPP, YOLOv3-Tiny, YOLOv4, YOLOv4-Small and YOLOv4-Tiny. Both 3-class (green berries, red berries, blue berries) and 2-class (unripe berries, ripe berries) models were developed with YOLOv4 performing the best with mean average precisions of 79.79% and 88.12% respectively. This result was further supported by YOLOv4 achieving the highest F1 score of 0.82. YOLOv4-Tiny performed the best from a computational load perspective having a mean inference time of 7.8 ms and a mean memory usage of 1.63 GB for single 1280 × 736 pixel images. Only minor differences in the accuracy of the nonlinear regression yield prediction models were detected, with YOLOv4-Small performing the best with a mean absolute error of 24.1%. Despite this error, the results are encouraging, and this novel approach to yield estimation in wild blueberries will aid growers in making better, more localized, management decisions, improving yields and ultimately increasing profits by better understanding their fields ripening characteristics.

Yeast and fruit fly mutual niche construction and antagonism against mould

Abstract A goal in insect–microbe ecology is to understand the mechanisms regulating species associations and mutualistic interactions. The spotted wing drosophila Drosophila suzukii develops in ripening fruit, unlike other drosophilids that typically feed on overripe fruit, and is associated with the yeast Hanseniaspora uvarum. We hypothesized that D. suzukii and H. uvarum engage in niche construction leading to a mutualistic relation, facilitating the exploitation of fruit and berries as larval substrate. We show that H. uvarum proliferates on both ripe and on unripe raspberries, mediates attraction of D. suzukii larvae and adult flies, enhances egg‐laying in mated females and is a sufficient food substrate to support larval development. Moreover, H. uvarum suppresses the antagonistic grey mould, Botrytis cinerea in collaboration with D. suzukii larvae, and produces less ethanol than baker's yeast. H. uvarum thus creates favourable conditions for D. suzukii larval development, which is susceptible to ethanol and grey mould. D. suzukii, on the other hand, vectors H. uvarum to suitable substrates such as raspberries, where larval feeding activity enhances growth of H. uvarum. Larval feeding also helps to suppress B. cinerea, which otherwise outcompetes H. uvarum on raspberry, in the absence of fly larvae. In conclusion, H. uvarum enhances D. suzukii larval development on unripe berries, and D. suzukii promotes H. uvarum dispersal and growth on berries. Yeast and fly modify their shared habitat in reciprocal niche construction and mutual interaction. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Insights into sugar metabolism during bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) fruit development.

Bilberry fruit is regarded as one of the best natural sources of anthocyanins and is widely explored for its health‐beneficial compounds. Besides anthocyanins, one of the major attributes that determine the berry quality is the accumulation of sugars that provide sweetness and flavor to ripening fruit. In this study, we have identified 25 sugar metabolism‐related genes in bilberry, including invertases (INVs), hexokinases (HKs), fructokinases (FKs), sucrose synthases (SSs), sucrose phosphate synthases (SPSs), and sucrose phosphate phosphatases (SPPs). The results indicate that isoforms of the identified genes are expressed differentially during berry development, suggesting specialized functions. The highest sugar content was found in ripe berries, with fructose and glucose dominating accompanied by low sucrose amount. The related enzyme activities during berry development and ripening were further analyzed to understand the molecular mechanism of sugar accumulation. The activity of INVs in the cell wall and vacuole increased toward ripe berries. Amylase activity involved in starch metabolism was not detected in unripe berries but was found in ripe berries. Sucrose resynthesizing SS enzyme activity was detected upon early ripening and had the highest activity in ripe berries. Interestingly, our transcriptome data showed that supplemental irradiation with red and blue light triggered upregulation of several sugar metabolism‐related genes, including α‐ and β‐amylases. Also, differential expression patterns in responses to red and blue light were found across sucrose, galactose, and sugar‐alcohol metabolism. Our enzymological and transcriptional data provide new understanding of the bilberry fruit sugar metabolism having major effect on fruit quality.

Simple optical criterion of the ripeness level of strawberries

Reflection spectra from strawberries of four botanical varieties at seven different ripeness levels were investigated in the visible range of 400–700 nm. Reflection spectra of unripe berries exhibit two maxima at wavelengths of 550 and 700 nm and a characteristic dip between them in the range of chlorophyl absorption at 670–680 nm. In the course of ripening, a significant transformation of the first maximum occurs up until its complete disappearance from the spectra of overripe berries, along with its shift to the long wavelength range of the visible spectrum. A gradual increase in the reflection coefficient at the wavelength of 670 nm and smoothening of the spectral curve of ripe and overripe berries are observed at the same time. We established that the ratio of reflection coefficients at the wavelengths of 670 and 630 nm, R670/R630, can serve as a universal ripeness criterion, including the final ripening stages.

Analysis of individual anthocyanins, flavanols, flavonols and other polyphenols in Pistacia lentiscus L. fruits during ripening

Pistacia lentiscus L. is a shrub of the Anacardiaceae family whose fruits are used in Tunisian and Algerian diets. The phenolic composition at 5 different physiological stages of the fruit was investigated using two different targeted methodologies: ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–UV/visible detection (UHPLC-UV/vis) for anthocyanins and UHPLC coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) for the other polyphenols. For the specific analysis of anthocyanins, compound identification was confirmed by UHPLC-MS/MS and LC-NMR analysis. This study revealed the identification of 30 phenolic compounds including 9 anthocyanins, 7 flavanols, 7 flavonols, 2 phenolic acids, 1 stilbene, 2 flavanones, 1 flavanonol and 1 dihydrochalcone. Quantification showed significant qualitative and quantitative variation in phenolic content during the ripening of P. lentiscus fruits, flavonols being the main compounds for the unripe berries and anthocyanins for ripe berries. To the best of our knowledge, our study reports the presence of piceid and protocatechuic acid in P. lentiscus L. fruits, as well as several anthocyanins in Pistacia, for the first time. The results indicate potential applications of P. lentiscus L. fruits as a source of phenolic compounds to be used as nutraceuticals and as food colorants.

Solanum nigrum Extract and Solasonine Affected Hemolymph Metabolites and Ultrastructure of the Fat Body and the Midgut in Galleria mellonella.

Glycoalkaloids, secondary metabolites abundant in plants belonging to the Solanaceae family, may affect the physiology of insect pests. This paper presents original results dealing with the influence of a crude extract obtained from Solanum nigrum unripe berries and its main constituent, solasonine, on the physiology of Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera) that can be used as an alternative bioinsecticide. G. mellonella IV instar larvae were treated with S. nigrum extract and solasonine at different concentrations. The effects of extract and solasonine were evaluated analyzing changes in carbohydrate and amino acid composition in hemolymph by RP-HPLC and in the ultrastructure of the fat body cells by TEM. Both extract and solasonine changed the level of hemolymph metabolites and the ultrastructure of the fat body and the midgut cells. In particular, the extract increased the erythritol level in the hemolymph compared to control, enlarged the intracellular space in fat body cells, and decreased cytoplasm and lipid droplets electron density. The solasonine, tested with three concentrations, caused the decrease of cytoplasm electron density in both fat body and midgut cells. Obtained results highlighted the disturbance of the midgut and the fat body due to glycoalkaloids and the potential role of hemolymph ingredients in its detoxification. These findings suggest a possible application of glycoalkaloids as a natural insecticide in the pest control of G. mellonella larvae.

Studies of the Functional Properties of the Cortex and Pulp of Ripe and Unripe Berries of Solanum Aethiopicum Variety Striped Toga

The African eggplant Solanum aethiopicum var. striped toga is a widely consumed vegetable-fruit in Côte d'Ivoire. Although produced in abundance in the rainy season, they are subject to post-harvest losses and these commodities are expensive in the dry season. Also during culinary preparations, the cortex is often removed for various reasons (difficulty to be crushed, aesthetics, presence in the stool...). This study was carried out by determining the functional properties of powders obtained from the cortex and pulp of blackberry and non blackberry berries. The apparent density was between 0.25 and 0.35g/mL with higher values in the cortex than in the pulp. The cortex powders had higher water absorption capacities than the pulp in both ripening levels (Cortex unripe (Cnm): 657.51% versus Pulp unripe (Pnm): 622.12% and Cortex ripe (Cm): 600.33% versus Pm: 486.26%). The oil absorption capacity of pulp was lower than that of cortex in unrefined and refined oil. After analysis, it appears that the powders obtained from the cortex have the same physico-chemical properties as those obtained from the pulp but at different proportions. Indeed, at the biochemical level, the eggplant (S. aethiopicum striped toga) cortexes contain the same compounds as the pulp but in small quantities.

Population dynamics of Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) according to the phenology of Coffea arabica L. in equatorial conditions of North Sumatra

In the Toba Highlands of North Sumatra (Indonesia), coffee production (Coffea arabica L. var. Sigarar Utang) is an important outcome for smallholders; however, the attack of the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei, is an obstacle for the development of coffee cultivation in this area. This pest causes great economic losses produced by the development of its offspring inside the coffee berries, making it difficult to control. This concerning situation has led us to consider the development of a CBB control strategy, but beforehand, it was necessary to acquire key information on the phenology of the coffee tree and its implication on the bioecology of the pest. Thus, two study designs were set up, one comprising six plots with two different age classes and the other corresponding to a single plot dedicated only to the study of short distance dispersal of CBB. Part of this study focused on the phenology of the coffee trees and showed that berry production mainly takes place in the upper parts of the trees and significantly decreases with tree age. Due to the equatorial climate, berries were practically always present. Berries were produced following two major flowering periods and some minor ones distributed over the year, and harvested at regular intervals. Berry distribution on the branches varied over time. Dynamics of infestations by CBB showed that ripe berries were more infested than unripe berries because they had been exposed longer to CBB attacks, that older trees were more exposed than younger trees and that infestation was evenly distributed along branches. In addition, internode pedestrian dispersal of CBBs was shown to occur, but considerably less frequently than airborne dispersal. In conclusion, it appears that in the agro-climatic context of the Toba region, the virtual year-round presence of berries - which fosters CBB infestations and CBB short-distance dispersal - is a constraint that must be taken into consideration for designing future pest management measures. To this end, it will be necessary in particular to evaluate the potential of trapping mainly used in tropical areas and to put into practice the sanitation harvesting applied in other countries.

Traditional medicinal uses of the Eurasian wild grapevine in the Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula constitutes the Western limit of the dioecious Eurasian wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris). At present, it is a threatened plant, due to human impacts. This liana has had different uses in this territory from the Paleolithic until the end of the last century, including several medicinal applications, inherited from the classical Greek culture. In order to retrieve the available written information, we carried out an exhaustive bibliographic search of the pharmacopoeia linked to this Vitaceae, from the 16th century to the present day. Current references on chemical composition of different parts of grapevine and their medicinal uses were also covered. In parallel, we conducted research in several archives and made inquiries to historians, anthropologists, and sanitary personnel. We also interviewed elderly people from rural areas of Spain and Portugal where some relic populations of wild grapevine are still conserved. Among the written and oral medicinal uses compiled, the main ones are: the use of the grapevine bleeding water to alleviate eczema and skin eruptions and to combat conjunctivitis and keratitis; the use of must from unripe berries (agua de agraz in Spanish) as liver tonic and to treat digestive diseases; the leaves were used to reduce edema, as antihemorrhoidal, and for menopausal disorders; and finally, the vinegar was used to clean and disinfect wounds both on humans and animals. This paper highlights the tremendous erosion of the traditional knowledge about this relevant plant genetic resource.

Chemical composition of essential oils of berries of Juniperus macrocarpa Sibth. & Sm. from Turkey

The chemical compositions of the hydrodistilled essential oils of ripen and unripen berries of Juniperus macrocarpa Sibth. & Sm. (Jom) were analysed by GC-MS. Thirty eight compounds were identified from unripe berries, accounting for approximately 0.03% oil yield (v/w dried weight) and 16 compounds from ripe berries with 0.003% oil yield (v/w dried weight). While the major compounds in the essential oils of unripe berries were α-cedrol (30.04%), α-pinene (18.81%), germacrene-D (14.58%), δ-cadinene (3.80%), γ-cadinene (2.29%), α-humulene (2.29%), γ-muurolene (2.27%), epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene (1.69%), transcaryophyllene (1.68%), valencen (1.53 %) and α-cedrol (49.87%), β- caryophyllene (29.57%), α-cedrene (4.75%), γ-muurolene (2.54%), carvacrol methyl ether (1.4%), trans-pinocarveol (1.2%), α-pinene (1.13%), α-muurolene (1.04%) were identified from ripe berries and their mean percentage varied according to their phenological stage. Both qualitative and quantitative differences between ripe and unripe berries of the plant were observed.

Fungal Microbiota of Sea Buckthorn Berries at Two Ripening Stages and Volatile Profiling of Potential Biocontrol Yeasts.

Sea buckthorn, Hippophae rhamnoides L., has considerable potential for landscape reclamation, food, medicinal, and cosmetics industries. In this study, we analyzed fungal microorganism populations associated with carposphere of sea buckthorn harvested in Lithuania. An amplicon metagenomic approach based on the ITS2 region of fungal rDNA was used to reveal the ripening-affected fungal community alterations on sea buckthorn berries. According to alpha and beta diversity analyses, depending on the ripening stage, sea buckthorn displayed significantly different fungal communities. Unripe berries were shown to be prevalent by Aureobasidium, Taphrina, and Cladosporium, while ripe berries were dominated by Aureobasidium and Metschnikowia. The selected yeast strains from unripe and mature berries were applied for volatile organic compounds identification by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques. It was demonstrated that the patterns of volatiles of four yeast species tested were distinct from each other. The current study for the first time revealed the alterations of fungal microorganism communities colonizing the surface of sea buckthorn berries at different ripening stages. The novel information on specific volatile profiles of cultivable sea buckthorn-associated yeasts with a potential role in biocontrol is important for the development of the strategies for plant cultivation and disease management, as well as for the improvement of the quality and preservation of the postharvest berries. Management of the fungal microorganisms present on the surface of berries might be a powerful instrument for control of phytopathogenic and potentially antagonistic microorganisms affecting development and quality of the berries.

Juniperus communis L.: A review of volatile organic compounds of wild and cultivated common juniper in Lithuania

Juniper (Juniperus communis L.) is a common wild or cultivated plant, mainly distributed in the Northern hemisphere. The plant, being one of three natural conifers in the countries of the Baltic Sea region, grows separately or forms stands in Lithuania. It is an evergreen, long-lived shrub or a small tree. Juniper synthesizes various (quantitatively and qualitatively as well) volatile organic compounds depending on the plant origin, organ and developing stage. Essential oils are prepared from different parts of juniper. Juniper berries, the fruit of J. communis, perhaps the most valuable part of the plant, are rich in essential oils. Preparations of them are used traditionally in folk medicine and veterinary as antiseptic, diuretic, anti-helminthic, anti-fungicidal, anti-rheumatic, antibacterial, tonic and anti-inflammatory remedy. This paper reviews the published information concerning data on the chemical composition of essential oils obtained from various plant organs (sprouts, shouts, ripe and unripe berries, leaves, wood and bark) of junipers wild growing (or cultivated) in different localities in Lithuania. Alfa α-pinene is the most common constituent determined in Lithuanian juniper essential oils. This monoperpe hydrocarbon was evaluated as a predominant compound in most of investigated oils, obtained from juniper shoots, sprouts, needles and cones (both unripe and ripe ones).

Differentially expressed genes during berry ripening in de novo RNA assembly of Vitis flexuosa fruits

A comparative transcriptome analysis between unripe and ripe berries of Vitis flexuosa, a Korean native wild grape, was conducted to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). About 12 billion nucleotides derived from unripe and ripe berries were sequenced and 180,503 contigs were obtained from the assembly results. Expression profiles of transcriptome data revealed that 5249 DEGs showed significant differences at transcript levels between unripe and ripe berries. The top five up-regulated genes in ripe berries against unripe berries were cupin family protein, cytochrome p450 79a2, HSP20-like chaperones superfamily protein, chalcone and stilbene synthase family protein, and beta-tonoplast intrinsic protein. The five most down-regulated genes in ripe berries against unripe berries were cellulose synthase family protein, laccase 17, proline-rich protein 2, subtilase 1.3, and laccase/diphenol oxidase family protein. Among DEGs, top 10 up- and down-regulated carbohydrate, organic substance, and phenylpropanoid metabolic process-related genes were selected from transcriptome analysis and their expression profiles were validated by real-time PCR. Real-time PCR analysis revealed higher expression level of DEGs encoding xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase 32 and pectin lyase-like superfamily protein, which are related to starch and sucrose metabolism, cruciferin 3 and AGAMOUS-like 104, which are involved in organic acid metabolism, and MYB domain protein 113 and chalcone and stilbene synthase family protein, which play a role in the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase pathway in ripe than in unripe berries. Overall, we present an overview of transcriptome changes and carbohydrate, organic substance, and phenylpropanoid metabolic process-related expression patterns in unripe and ripe berries of V. flexuosa during berry ripening.

Strawberry ripeness calibrated 2D colour lookup table for field-deployable computer vision

Efficient strawberry harvesting using semi-autonomous robotic pickers requires a method for fast, automatic discrimination between ripe and unripe berries. In this paper we present a strawberry ripeness algorithm that has been developed and tested on images obtained with commercial cameras, recorded under daylight illumination on an outdoor strawberry farm. The method uses a 2D lookup table seeded such that regions for ripe strawberry, unripe strawberry and strawberry calyx exist in distinct locations in the table. Measurements show the ratio of ripe to unripe area provides a good estimator of ripeness and that the approach was practical for further extension to real-time use.

Dynamics of partitioning of major sugars, total phenols and flavonoids in the juice of seven wine grape (Vitis spp.) cultivars during different stages of berry development

The juices of seven grapevine (wine) cultivars grown in the Fruit Research Farm, Department of Fruit Science, PAU Ludhiana, were analyzed for sugar, phenol and flavonoids at four different stages of berry development, in 2015 and 2016. When the unripe berries were almost in full size, the glucose, fructose and sucrose contents ranged from 1.650–4.433 g/100 ml, 1.030–2.940 g/100 ml and 0.063–1.043 g/100 ml in the year 2015 and 1.500–3.760 g/100 ml (2016), 0.703–2.757 g/100 ml and 0.023–1.030 g/100 ml in the year 2016, while the level of phenols and flavonoids was very low. At verasion sugar content increased slightly. However dramatic changes in all genotypes were recorded after verasion. In the final analysis the total sugar content varied from 20.293 g/100 ml (CBR)–26.087 g/100 ml (Merlot) in the year 2015 and 17.750 g/100 ml (Carolina Black Rose)–24.337 g/100 ml (Merlot) n the year 2016, and the phenol and total flavonoid content of mature berries range from 3.070 g/100 ml (Merlot)–4.967 g/100 ml (H-144) in the year 2015 and 2.296 g/100 ml–4.453 g/100 ml (H-144) in the year 2016. This study gives valuable information for further understanding the sugar, phenol and total flavonoid changes that occur in some grape cultivars during berry maturation. Therefore, the results are useful for research on biochemistry of grapes during berry development.

Wind Speed Affects Pollination Success in Blackberries

Pollination of wild plants and agricultural crops is a vitally important ecosystem service. Many landscape and environmental factors influence the pollination success of crops, including distance from natural habitat, wind speed, and solar radiation. Although there is a general consensus that increasing distance from forest decreases pollination success, few studies have examined the influence of specific environmental factors. In this study, we examined which environmental factors influence the pollination success of blackberries (Rubus glaucus). We measured the number of fruitlets per berry, a proxy for pollination success, as well as the weight and sweetness of each berry. Our results indicate that number of fruitlets is positively correlated with wind speed, but number of unripe red berries per bush is negatively correlated with wind speed. In addition, sweetness increased with increasing numbers of red berries per bush but was lower when flowers and berries were present, though this result should be considered with caution due to methodological limitations. Our findings suggest that a little studied environmental factor, wind, has a large impact on the number of fruitlets in blackberries. Although our findings should be confirmed in other locations to draw broader conclusions, they suggest that producers should consider the effect of wind on blackberry yield to optimize blackberry production.