Unrelated Question Randomized Response Technique Research Articles

A Two-Stage Unrelated Question Randomized Response Model for Estimating the Prevalence of Stigmatized Attribute

The randomized response technique (RRT) is an effective method designed to obtain the stigmatized information from respondents while assuring the privacy. In this study, we propose a new two-stage unrelated question RRT model to estimate the prevalence of sensitive attribute π when the proportion of unrelated innocuous attribute is known and unknown. A simulation study is carried out to validate the theoretical results of proposed estimators. The utility of proposed two-stage unrelated question RRT model under stratification is also explored. An efficiency comparison between the proposed two-stage unrelated question RRT model and the Singh and Suman RRT model is carried out numerically under simple and stratified random sampling.

A two-stage unrelated question randomized response model for estimating the rare sensitive parameter under Poisson distribution

In this paper, we propose a new two-stage unrelated question randomized response technique (RRT) model to estimate the mean of the number of persons possessing a rare sensitive attribute using the Poisson distribution. The utility of proposed two-stage unrelated question RRT model under stratification is also explored. Efficiency comparison between proposed two-stage unrelated question and Singh and Suman (2019) RRT model is carried out numerically under simple random sampling, and with Suman and Singh (2019) in stratified random sampling, respectively.

Shrinkage Estimation Procedure of Population Mean with Stigmatizing Character in Unrelated Question Randomized Response Technique

This work deals with the estimation of population mean related to sensitive characteristic. A shrinkage estimator of population mean using a prior information is proposed under unrelated question randomized response model where one of the two questions presented to the respondents is non-stigmatized and unrelated to the stigmatized character. The properties of proposed estimator have been discussed, and empirical studies are accomplished to demonstrate the performance of the proposed estimation procedure.

More is not always better: An experimental individual-level validation of the randomized response technique and the crosswise model.

Social desirability and the fear of sanctions can deter survey respondents from responding truthfully to sensitive questions. Self-reports on norm breaking behavior such as shoplifting, non-voting, or tax evasion may thus be subject to considerable misreporting. To mitigate such response bias, various indirect question techniques, such as the randomized response technique (RRT), have been proposed. We evaluate the viability of several popular variants of the RRT, including the recently proposed crosswise-model RRT, by comparing respondents’ self-reports on cheating in dice games to actual cheating behavior, thereby distinguishing between false negatives (underreporting) and false positives (overreporting). The study has been implemented as an online survey on Amazon Mechanical Turk (N = 6, 505). Our results from two validation designs indicate that the forced-response RRT and the unrelated-question RRT, as implemented in our survey, fail to reduce the level of misreporting compared to conventional direct questioning. For the crosswise-model RRT we do observe a reduction of false negatives. At the same time, however, there is a non-ignorable increase in false positives; a flaw that previous evaluation studies relying on comparative or aggregate-level validation could not detect. Overall, none of the evaluated indirect techniques outperformed conventional direct questioning. Furthermore, our study demonstrates the importance of identifying false negatives as well as false positives to avoid false conclusions about the validity of indirect sensitive question techniques.

Hybrid tripartite randomized response technique

ABSTRACTIn this paper, a new randomized response technique has been proposed that combines the unrelated question randomized response technique and tripartite randomized response technique. The relative efficiency of the newly proposed Randomized Response technique over the existing Randomized Response technique was obtained. It was observed that the relative efficiency of the proposed technique over the tripartite RRT increases with increase in πA and πU. The applicability of the proposed technique was also shown. However, it has been shown that the proposed technique performs better than the conventional ones.

Improved estimation methods for unrelated question randomized response techniques

ABSTRACTThe randomized response technique (RRT) is an important tool, commonly used to avoid biased answers in survey on sensitive issues by preserving the respondents’ privacy. In this paper, we introduce a data collection method for survey on sensitive issues combining both the unrelated-question RRT and the direct question design. The direct questioning method is utilized to obtain responses to a non sensitive question that is related to the innocuous question from the unrelated-question RRT. These responses serve as additional information that can be used to improve the estimation of the prevalence of the sensitive behavior. Furthermore, we propose two new methods for the estimation of the proportion of respondents possessing the sensitive attribute under a missing data setup. More specifically, we develop the weighted estimator and the weighted conditional likelihood estimator. The performances of our estimators are studied numerically and compared with that of an existing one. Both proposed estimators are more efficient than the Greenberg's estimator. We illustrate our methods using real data from a survey study on illegal use of cable TV service in Taiwan.

Estimates of Lifetime Extradyadic Sex Using a Hybrid of Randomized Response Technique and Crosswise Design.

The prevalence of extradyadic sex (EDS) tends to be underestimated due to underreporting in national surveys, which use direct questioning. Self-administered questionnaires can reduce this response bias but may cause the anxiety of privacy exposure. Randomized Response Technique (RRT) can ensure participants' confidentiality under the randomized design of indirect questions to and was found to yield more valid estimates of sexual or other sensitive behaviors than direct questions. This study estimated the EDS rate among Taiwanese aged 18years and over, using a hybrid of Randomized Response Technique and Crosswise Design (RRTCD) and the Weighted Conditional Likelihood (WCL) estimator. The data analyzed were from the 2012 Taiwan Social Change Survey, in which the answer to the innocuous question from the unrelated-question RRT of Greenberg, Abul-Ela, Simmons, and Horvitz (1969) was obtained indirectly from a demographic question related to the innocuous question. This RRTCD provided more information on the innocuous question to effectively improve the efficiency of the unrelated-question RRT of Greenberg et al. The WCL estimator was found to be more efficient than the Greenberg et al. estimator for estimating the EDS rate in terms of smaller standard errors and smaller differences in the levels of EDS across sociodemographics and extramarital-sex attitudes. Similar to those suggested in the literature, the estimated rates of EDS in two subsamples were higher among men, homosexuals, those who have or had wages, and those who accepted extramarital sex. The levels of EDS varying with sociodemographics were different between the married and the unmarried.

An optional unrelated question RRT model

We propose a modified unrelated question randomized response technique (RRT) model which allows respondents the option of answering a sensitive question directly without using the randomization device if they find the question nonsensitive. This situation has been handled before by Gupta, Tuck, Spears Gill, and Crowe using the split sample approach. In this work we avoid the split sample approach, which requires larger total sample size. Instead, we estimate the prevalence of the sensitive characteristic by using an optional unrelated question RRT model, but the corresponding sensitivity level is estimated from the same sample by using the traditional binary unrelated question RRT model of Greenberg, Abul-Ela, Simmons, and Horvitz. We compare the simulation results of this new model with those of the split-sample based optional unrelated question RRT model of Gupta et al. and the simple unrelated question RRT model of Greenberg et al. Computer simulations show that the new binary response and quantitative response models have the smallest variance among the three models when they have the same sample size.

An alternative to unrelated randomized response techniques with logistic regression analysis.

The randomized response technique (RRT) is an important tool that is commonly used to protect a respondent's privacy and avoid biased answers in surveys on sensitive issues. In this work, we consider the joint use of the unrelated-question RRT of Greenberg et al. (J Am Stat Assoc 64:520-539, 1969) and the related-question RRT of Warner (J Am Stat Assoc 60:63-69, 1965) dealing with the issue of an innocuous question from the unrelated-question RRT. Unlike the existing unrelated-question RRT of Greenberg et al. (1969), the approach can provide more information on the innocuous question by using the related-question RRT of Warner (1965) to effectively improve the efficiency of the maximum likelihood estimator of Scheers and Dayton (J Am Stat Assoc 83:969-974, 1988). We can then estimate the prevalence of the sensitive characteristic by using logistic regression. In this new design, we propose the transformation method and provide large-sample properties. From the case of two survey studies, an extramarital relationship study and a cable TV study, we develop the joint conditional likelihood method. As part of this research, we conduct a simulation study of the relative efficiencies of the proposed methods. Furthermore, we use the two survey studies to compare the analysis results under different scenarios.

Associations between Physical and Cognitive Doping – A Cross-Sectional Study in 2.997 Triathletes

PurposeThis study assessed, for the first time, prevalence estimates for physical and cognitive doping within a single collective of athletes using the randomized response technique (RRT). Furthermore, associations between the use of legal and freely available substances to improve physical and cognitive performance (enhancement) and illicit or banned substances to improve physical and cognitive performance (doping) were examined.MethodsAn anonymous questionnaire using the unrelated question RRT was used to survey 2,997 recreational triathletes in three sports events (Frankfurt, Regensburg, and Wiesbaden) in Germany. Prior to the survey, statistical power analyses were performed to determine sample size. Logistic regression was used to predict physical and cognitive enhancement and the bootstrap method was used to evaluate differences between the estimated prevalences of physical and cognitive doping.Results2,987 questionnaires were returned (99.7%). 12-month prevalences for physical and cognitive doping were 13.0% and 15.1%, respectively. The prevalence estimate for physical doping was significantly higher in athletes who also used physical enhancers, as well as in athletes who took part in the European Championship in Frankfurt compared to those who did not. The prevalence estimate for cognitive doping was significantly higher in athletes who also used physical and cognitive enhancers. Moreover, the use of physical and cognitive enhancers were significantly associated and also the use of physical and cognitive doping.DiscussionThe use of substances to improve physical and cognitive performance was associated on both levels of legality (enhancement vs. doping) suggesting that athletes do not use substances for a specific goal but may have a general propensity to enhance. This finding is important for understanding why people use such substances. Consequently, more effective prevention programs against substance abuse and doping could be developed.

An empirical test of the unrelated question randomized response technique

An empirical test was conducted to determine the degree to which respondents, interviewed using the unrelated question randomized response technique (RRT), would truthfully answer the nonsensitive question when directed to by the randomization outcome if that answer could be jeopardizing should it pertain to the sensitive question. Depending on the sensitive question, between 2% and 10% of the respondents did not answer the unrelated question truthfully. However, these percentages were much smaller than were previously found for the directed response RRT.

Covariate Randomized Response Models

Abstract The randomized response technique (RRT) is a survey procedure that requires respondents to decide randomly whether to respond to a sensitive question in its positive or negative form (Warner 1965) or respond to a sensitive question and an unrelated question (Greenberg, Abul-Ela, Simmons, and Horvitz 1969). Although RRT results in larger standard errors than direct questioning or anonymous questionnaires, there is empirical evidence that RRT results in less underreporting of sensitive behavior, so estimates tend to be biased to a lesser degree than when alternate techniques are used. This article develops and illustrates the application of a covariate extension of RRT that can reduce standard errors and that allows for modeling the relation between the proportion with a sensitive characteristic and a covariate. It is assumed that the covariate, X, has a known distribution. Then, the covariate RRT involves selecting a functional form for the relation between π A , the proportion with the sensitive characteristic, and X: πA|X = g(X | α), where α is a vector of parameters that generally must be estimated from the data. Because of its mathematical tractability, the two-parameter logistic function g(X | α) = [1 + exp(– α1 – α2 · X)]–1 was developed for the Warner RRT and both the πv -known and πy -unknown versions of the unrelated-question RRT. A small-scale study using contrived but realistic data situations demonstrated the relative efficiency of the covariate RRT compared with the ordinary RRT at each level of a stratified covariate. It should be noted, however, that misspecification of the relation between πA and X may result in a substantial bias component, so it is important to assess the appropriateness of a model for a particular data set. The covariate RRT was applied to data for five questions from a cheating study involving 184 university students. The covariate was estimated grade point average (GPA). The logistic function provided acceptable fit for all five questions, although the parameter estimates associated with GPA were statistically significant for only three of the five questions.

Randomized response estimates of problem use of alcohol among employed females.

As part of the evaluation of an alcoholism orientation program conducted in 12 federal agencies, 378 female employees were asked to provide personal information about problems associated with their use of alcohol. The optimized form of the unrelated question randomized response technique (RRT) was used to provide for a comparison of estimates of frequency of problem drinking obtained with guaranteed confidentiality of response versus estimates obtained using a conventional anonymous questionnaire. The estimated proportion of alcoholics or possible alcoholics among participants in the orientation program was 34.3% (+/- 4.9) by the RRT and 21.9% (+/- 3.6) by direct response. Significant underreporting of alcoholism was found among older respondents (greater than or equal to 36 years), lower GS level respondents (less than grade 6), those with low seniority (less than 8 years), and those never married. Further, significant underreporting was found among those who claimed they were told they had to attend the program versus others, and among those who claimed they were not curious about the topic of alcoholism versus others. The RRT is recommended for use in experimental situations where answers to sensitive questions are needed to evaluate program success. The necessity for caution in interpretation of apparent differences in respondent characteristics with respect to problems with alcohol use is discussed. Finally, the findings indicate the importance of providing avenues by which confidential treatment for alcoholism can be obtained.

The Unrelated Question Randomized Response Model: Theoretical Framework

Abstract This paper develops a theoretical framework for the unrelated question randomized response technique suggested by Walt R. Simmons. The statistical efficiency of this technique is compared with the Warner technique under situations of both truthful and untruthful responses. Methods of allocating the total sample to each of two subsamples required by the unrelated question approach are developed. Recommendations are made concerning choices of values for those parameters which can be assigned at the discretion of the investigator.

The Unrelated Question Randomized Response Model: Theoretical Framework

Abstract This paper develops a theoretical framework for the unrelated question randomized response technique suggested by Walt R. Simmons. The statistical efficiency of this technique is compared with the Warner technique under situations of both truthful and untruthful responses. Methods of allocating the total sample to each of two subsamples required by the unrelated question approach are developed. Recommendations are made concerning choices of values for those parameters which can be assigned at the discretion of the investigator.