Unpaved Rural Roads Research Articles

Multiresidues of pesticides in the particulate matter (PM10) emitted by rural soils of the semiarid pampas, Argentina. A potential source of air pollution

The aim of this work was to evaluate the presence of 40 pesticides in the PM10 emitted by rural soils of the semiarid region of Argentina. Six agricultural soils for grain production under no till and with high use of pesticides (AG), 5 agricultural soils for forage and grain production under conventional tillage (AFG) and 5 unpaved rural roads (RR) were sampled. The PM10 was generated using the Easy Dust Generator and it was collected with an electrostatic precipitator. The presence of 20 herbicides, 14 insecticides and 6 fungicides was analyzed in the soil and in the PM10. More than 70% of the pesticides analyzed were detected in the soil and in the PM10. All agricultural soils and 87% of RR soils showed at least one residue of pesticides. Multiresidues of pesticides were found in the 100% of PM10 emitted by rural soils. The mean number of pesticides was higher in the PM10 (7) than in the soil (5). Some pesticides were not detected in the soils but they were detected in the PM10 (triticonazole, carbofuran, metsulfuron methyl) and vice versa. In general, the concentrations of herbicides were higher in the PM10 than in the soil, while the concentrations of insecticides and fungicides were lower in the PM10 than in the soil. These results suggest that the concentrations of pesticide in the PM10 (inhalable fraction) should be used instead the concentrations of pesticide in the soil to calculate the exposure factor to pesticides by dust inhalation. This study provides the initial evidence of the presence of multiple pesticide residues in PM10 emitted by rural soils under different land management. Also confirms that the PM10 is a potential source of air contamination with pesticides. Future studies should be driven to measure the concentrations of pesticides and their dynamics in the PM10.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR UNPAVED RURAL ROADS: A CASE STUDY

This study focused on the evaluation of the condition of the unpaved rural road: Sauces Norte-Imbana in the province of Loja, using two main indicators: Unsurfaced Road Condition Index (URCI) and the International Roughness Index (IRI). The IRI was measured using three different devices: MERLIN, Roughometer III, and a mobile application. The collected data were statistically analyzed to determine their distribution and the correlation between the variables. The results revealed a weak correlation between these variables, indicating that each methodology may be assessing different aspects of the road condition or due to the particular conditions of the road. The lack of a strong relationship may be related to the specific characteristics of the studied road, such as its sinuosity and the influence of environmental conditions on roughness measurements. This study underscores the importance of considering a variety of factors when evaluating the condition of unpaved roads and the need to develop and apply suitable evaluation techniques for the specific conditions of each road.

Unpaved road particulate matter emission rates and vehicle-induced transient plume characteristics.

Particulate matter (PM) emitted from unpaved rural roads presents a potential inhalation hazard to people living and working near them. In the absence of site-specific exposure data, plume dispersion modeling can be used to predict ambient particulate concentrations in the vicinity of the unpaved roads. Hourly averaged PM10 concentrations were measured near a gravel road using an EPA reference method resulting in a geometric mean of 50 μg m-3. With these ambient concentrations, the AERMOD plume dispersion model was used to derive a PM emission factor of 444 g/VKT (grams per vehicle kilometer travelled). This result was lower than the emission factor calculated using the EPA's AP-42 guidance for unpaved roads (795 g/VKT). The transient nature of the plume of PM concentrations due to road traffic was also evaluated using a direct-reading instrument. Vehicle speed and wind speed were found to be significant determinants of PM concentration, average PM concentration, and total PM mass for each plume. Each vehicle produced an average concentration of 4096 μg m-3 over the duration of the plume. Therefore, residents near the road are potentially exposed to substantially higher short-term concentrations from individual plumes than would be indicated by hourly averages.

Life Cycle Assessment of Environmentally Friendly Solutions for the Construction of Unpaved Rural Roads

In recent decades, the international community has recognized the detrimental impact of the construction industry on the environment. In recent years, the use of recycled aggregates has attracted increasing interest as a sustainable and cost-effective solution for the construction and maintenance of road pavements. The life cycle assessment (LCA) represents a valuable methodology for evaluating the environmental sustainability of technologies involving the use of such materials. This study deals with the LCA of alternative solutions for the construction and maintenance of unpaved rural roads. Different scenarios using recycled materials, such as reclaimed asphalt and mineral sludge, are analyzed and compared to a reference solution that employs only virgin aggregates. The environmental sustainability of the proposed alternatives is assessed by considering the global warming potential (GWP), energy requirements, and water consumption. The LCA analysis is performed using SimaPro software (version 9.1.1.7). The obtained results demonstrate that solutions involving the use of recycled materials represent a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option. In particular, a significant reduction in water depletion was found for the alternative scenarios, with savings between 56% and 99%. For GWP and energy, the total savings ranged from approximately 20% to 40%.

Heroes and Pilgrims: An Autoethnographic exploration of adventure motorcycle travel

Abstract This paper sets out to illuminate the lived experience of the adventure motorcyclist during a multi-day trip across the Sarn Helen, a stretch of Roman road that makes up part of the Trans European Trail in Wales, which is now a rough unpaved rural road. The accompanying text first discusses autoethnography and how creating comics can be used in research. This is followed by an autoethnographic account of the journey, presented as a short comic, and a discussion of my changing philosophical stance which gives meaning to the experience. Unpaved roads provide a “Heterotopia”, a liminal space that allows for the meaning making of experiences and the negotiation and renegotiation of identities of self. This work draws upon an autoethnographic methodology to explore the lived experience of adventure motorcycling and utilises the creation of comics as a form of analysis and presentation of data. Through the application of the Hero’s and Pilgrim’s lens or viewpoint this autoethnographic work highlights how adventurous journeys through heterotopic spaces can provide an ighlyn of identity, sense making, as well as demonstrating both the outward physical journey and the internal emotional journey undertaken.

A Sustainable Cold-Recycled Solution for the Surface Finishing of Unpaved Rural Roads.

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation which was carried out with the purpose of assessing the performance-related properties of an emulsion-based cold-recycled mixture to be employed as a sustainable solution for the surface finishing of unpaved rural roads. This mixture contained significant quantities of recycled components (reclaimed asphalt and mineral sludge), and its composition was fine-tuned by following an innovative mix design procedure. Properties of these mixtures were studied by means of laboratory tests which considered key parameters, such as flowability, indirect tensile stiffness modulus, indirect tensile strength, moisture susceptibility and resistance to permanent deformation. It was found that, by means of the proposed mix design procedure, optimal dosages of the recycled components can be identified, thereby ensuring the achievement of the desired properties in terms of high workability and adequate stiffness and strength.

The role of unpaved roads in the sediment budget of a semiarid mesoscale catchment

AbstractHigh erosion and runoff rates have been measured on road infrastructure, indicating that unpaved roads might be significant sources of sediment in catchments. In this paper, the production of surface sediments from unpaved rural roads is assessed in Northeastern Brazil, in a semiarid area of the caatinga biome, vulnerable to desertification. Sediment production data from road surface segments were monitored for 2 years (2013–2014) under conditions of natural precipitation. By using hydrosedimentological modeling and a geographical information system (GIS), the sediment budget was calculated at the meso‐scale catchment (aprox. 930 km2), in order to identify the relative contribution of roads to the sediment balance. The universal soil loss equation (USLE) associated with Maner's sediment delivery ratio (SDR) equation, proved to be an adequate approach for predicting sediment yield on the road segment scale. The best results were obtained for the road without traffic, due to the non‐interference in this segment of external factors, such as traffic and maintenance activities, not explicitly considered in the model formulation. The modeling procedure showed that the roads, which occupy only 0.7% of the catchment surface, were responsible for approximately 7% of soil loss in the area. Furthermore, sediment connectivity might be enhanced by roads, which cross the river network and, therefore, deliver more directly the sediment generated at hillslopes. This is particularly important in the studied environment, where sediment connectivity is low due to limited runoff and the existence of a dense network of surface water reservoirs.

Unpaved road conservation planning at the catchment scale.

In addition to soil losses on hillslopes, unpaved rural roads, especially when poorly designed and maintained, can be a significant contributor to the erosive processes seen at the catchment scale. In areas with deep soils, the solutions primarily focus on channeling excess surface runoff into settling ponds or terraces. However, few studies have addressed runoff control from roads on steep slopes in areas of shallow soil. Modeling hydrological processes at the catchment scale is a useful strategy for choosing the most effective and least costly conservation practices to control surface runoff. This study applies a mathematical model to a monitored catchment in southern Brazil to better understand the effects of conservation practices on unpaved roads and their impact on the hydrological and erosive dynamics of a small rural catchment. We calibrated the LISEM model using data from eight stormwater events and evaluated how three different road conservation scenarios-low (LI), medium (MI), and high intensity (HI)-contributed to sediment yield (SY), surface runoff volume (Qe), and peak flow (Qp) reduction. The LI and MI scenarios involved installation of hydraulic structures to control the road surface runoff (i.e. road ditch graveling, diversion weirs and grass waterways) while the HI scenario added surface runoff control practices (grass strips) to surrounding crop fields, in addition to the practices included in the MI scenario. Based on these scenarios, the results showed a Qe reduction at the catchment outlet from - 3.5% (LI) to - 22.5% (HI). The Qp and SY varied from + 6.0% (LI) to - 292.5% (HI) and from + 20.0% (LI) to - 963.9% (HI), respectively. These results show that the low- and medium-intensity practices were not effective in controlling surface runoff from roads, based on the Qe, Qb, and SY observed at the catchment's outlet. On the other hand, when MI scenarios were complemented with practices to control surface runoff in the cultivated areas, a significant reduction in surface runoff (Qe and Qp) and SY was verified.

First evidence of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in the respirable dust (PM10) emitted from unpaved rural roads of Argentina

The aim of this work was to compare the concentration of glyphosate and AMPA in the PM10 and the actual PM10 emission from agricultural soils and unpaved roads, located inside and outside farm fields. To determine the actual PM10 emission by wind erosion, the actual wind erosion was estimated using the Wind Erosion Equation, and the PM10 emission efficiency was measured with the Easy Dust Generator. PM10 was collected in an electrostatic precipitator coupled to the Easy Dust Generator. Actual PM10 emission was 11.5 g ha−1 year−1 in agricultural soils and 4711.4 g ha−1 year−1 in unpaved roads. The high value of actual PM10 emission in unpaved roads was due to their high actual wind erosion and the high PM10 emission efficiency, while the low value in agricultural soils was due to their low actual wind erosion. Content of glyphosate in the PM10 ranged from 59 to 359 μg kg−1 in agricultural soils, from 382 to 454 μg kg−1 in unpaved roads inside farm fields, and from 39 to 639 μg kg−1 in unpaved roads outside farm fields. Content of AMPA in the PM10 ranged from 387 to 7228 μg kg−1 in agricultural soils, from 900 to 4138 μg kg−1 in unpaved roads inside farm fields, and 98 to 500 μg kg−1 in unpaved roads outside farm fields. AMPA concentration in PM10 was higher than that of glyphosate due to the longer persistence of AMPA than glyphosate. Glyphosate and AMPA concentrations in PM10 were higher than in soil, which is an additional risk that should be considered when the effect of PM10 emitted by agricultural soils and unpaved roads on human health are evaluated. Our results show that the amount and chemical composition of PM10 emitted by wind erosion from unpaved roads should be studied in other regions.

Development and Application of a Sustainable Management System for Unpaved Rural Road Networks

For the sustainable management of rural roads, social, institutional, technical, economic and environmental aspects should be considered under a long-term perspective. The current practice in developing countries is that only some of these key sustainable aspects are considered in the management process. In addition, rural roads maintenance management is commonly performed under a short-term basis, not considering the life-cycle costs and benefits in the economic analysis and project prioritization. This paper presents the development of a sustainable management system for rural road networks and its application in developing countries. The approach considers the development of a sustainable framework, application of a network-level condition evaluation methodology, condition performance models for gravel and earth roads, cost-effective maintenance standards, a long-term prioritization procedure that accounts for sustainable aspects, and a computer tool that integrates the system components. The management system has been applied and validated in two unpaved rural road networks in developing countries, located in Chile and Paraguay. Sensitivity analysis was carried out to assess the impacts of input parameters in the performance of developed system. As a result of the research an adaptable and adoptable sustainable management system for rural networks has been developed to assist local road agencies in developing countries.

Assessing the surface material quality of unpaved rural roads to understand susceptibility to surface deterioration. A case study of four rural areas in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Road surface deterioration is one of the most common problems of unpaved road networks worldwide. It is a reduction in the performance of a road due to a decline in road surface material quality. Accumulated damage from vehicles, environmental and physical effects may contribute to a decline in the surface material quality and hence deterioration on an unpaved road surface. This study assesses the surface material quality of unpaved rural roads in four rural areas in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa in order to understand susceptibility to surface deterioration. The study further establishes other possible factors such as slope gradient and rainfall, that could determine the surface material quality. Soil samples were collected from R3, R4, and R5 road classes in four rural areas which are: Emazabekweni, Dukuza, Mkhunya and Mhlwazini Area. Laboratory analyses were conducted in order to determine the performance of the material as potential wearing course. Material performance was then determined using the Standard Methods of Testing Road Construction Materials (TMH 1:1976) classification method. The results obtained imply that there is a need for better material selection during the construction of unpaved road networks. All road classes in Mkhunya, Emazabekweni and Mhlwazini areas exhibited grading coefficient (Gc) values less than 16 and some of the shrinkage product (Sp) values in excess of 365, corresponding to a classification of Class D, A and B. These results indicate material that is susceptible to slippery conditions, easily erodible and prone to the formation of ravels and corrugations. Correlation analysis results conducted to assess the individual relationship between measured rainfall and slope with field shrinkage product and grading coefficient values in each area indicated that variation in slope better explains shrinkage product values in each area with an R2 of 0.62 when compared to rainfall producing a lower R2 of 0.57. For grading coefficient, slope and rainfall produced similar R2 of 0.65 and 0.67, respectively.

The usage of cement for soil stabilisation in construction of low volume roads in Malaysia

There are about 25% of the total road networks in Malaysia is an unpaved road which is contained gravel or earth road [1]. These are commonly referred to as the low volume roads or unpaved rural road or agriculture roads which required a very minimum standard of design and construction due the low traffic impact and function of the road as an accessibility tool to the local communities. Difficulties in transporting of the materials to the construction site due to the distance from the quarry or construction material source do occur together with the requirement of suitable machinery. Soil stabilisation was identified as an alternative method to facilitate the design and construction requirement in achieving the implementation of the project where respect to cost, time and quality. Currently, soil stabilisation method was not popular in Malaysian construction industry players especially among road designer because the conventional method of pavement design always been the most priorities. Perhaps this may due to the absence of the specification purposely for soil stabilisation works. This paper will present the Malaysian experiences of implementing cement as soil stabiliser in road construction project for rural and low volume roads. The study had been conducted in the road construction project of Jalan Pos Sinderut, Kuala Lipis, Pahang. The scope of the study covers all the stages that involved in the implementation of soil stabilisation using cement this project including design, procurement, and construction.

Unpaved rural roads as source areas of sediment in a watershed of the Brazilian semi-arid region

Approximately 80% of the road network in Brazil is unpaved and shows evidences of a high erosion potential. In the semi-arid Caatinga Biome in the northeast of the country, a monitoring programme has been done for two years in order to analyze runoff and sediment production from unpaved rural roadways and from embankments. Sediment production ranged from 0.30 to 0.92 Mg/ha yr, higher than in undisturbed areas, but generally lower than that reported for unpaved roads in other regions. However, this is a semi-arid area with low rainfall and runoff and, hence, with a limited hydrological connectivity and sediment production. Sediment production on an embankment with no vegetation was around ten times higher than on an embankment with vegetation. On the road surface, annual sediment production (normalized for gradient) in a section with traffic was three times higher than for a road surface without traffic. In addition, events that occurred after roadway maintenance activities generated peaks of sediment concentration of over 5000 mg/L. These results suggest that sediment production from roads and embankments with bare surfaces is at least one order of magnitude higher than in undisturbed catchment areas. Maintenance activity and vehicle traffic contribute to an increase in sediment availability and impact on the sediment concentration, but less intensely on sediment loads, which depend on the runoff magnitude of the events occurring after roadway maintenance. It was also found that the natural vegetation of the semi-arid region potentially captures sediment on roadway embankments; thereby playing an important role in breaking connectivity between the sediment flow from unpaved roads and the natural drainage system of the catchment.

Community managed forests dominate the catchment sediment cascade in the mid-hills of Nepal: A compound-specific stable isotope analysis

Soil erosion by water is critical for soil, lake and reservoir degradation in the mid-hills of Nepal. Identification of the nature and relative contribution of sediment sources in rivers is important to mitigate water erosion within catchments and siltation problems in lakes and reservoirs. We estimated the relative contribution of land uses (i.e. sources) to suspended and streambed sediments in the Chitlang catchment using stable carbon isotope signature (δ13C) of long-chain fatty acids as a tracer input for MixSIAR, a Bayesian mixing model used to apportion sediment sources. Our findings reveal that the relative contribution of land uses varied between suspended and streambed sediment, but did not change over the monsoon period. Significant over- or under-prediction of source contributions could occur due to overlapping source tracer values, if source groups are classified on a catchment-wide basis. Therefore, we applied a novel deconvolutional framework of MixSIAR (D-MixSIAR) to improve source apportionment of suspended sediment collected at tributary confluences (i.e. sub-catchment level) and at the outlet of the entire catchment. The results indicated that the mixed forest was the dominant (41 ± 13%) contributor of sediment followed by broadleaf forest (15 ± 8%) at the catchment outlet during the pre-wet season, suggesting that forest disturbance as well as high rainfall and steep slopes interact for high sediment generation within the study catchment. Unpaved rural road tracks located on flat and steep slopes (11 ± 8 and 9 ± 7% respectively) almost equally contributed to the sediment. Importantly, agricultural terraces (upland and lowland) had minimal contribution (each <7%) confirming that proper terrace management and traditional irrigation systems played an important role in mitigating sediment generation and delivery. Source contributions had a small temporal, but large spatial, variation in the sediment cascade of Chitlang stream. D-MixSIAR provided significant improvement regarding spatially explicit sediment source apportionment within the entire catchment system. This information is essential to prioritize implementation measures to control erosion in community managed forests to reduce sediment loadings to Kulekhani hydropower reservoir. In conclusion, using compound-specific stable isotope (CSSI) tracers for sediment fingerprinting in combination with a deconvolutional Bayesian mixing model offers a versatile approach to deal with the large tracer variability within catchment land uses and thus to successfully apportion multiple sediment sources.

Feasibility of Using Unbound Mixed Recycled Aggregates from CDW over Expansive Clay Subgrade in Unpaved Rural Roads.

Social awareness aims to increase practical skills, such as sustainable development, which seeks to increase the use of different types of waste in construction activities. Although insufficient attention is sometimes given to these actions, it is essential to spread information regarding new studies in the field of waste recycling, which encourages and promotes waste use. Reusing and recycling construction waste in the creation of buildings and infrastructure are fundamental strategies to achieving sustainability in the construction and engineering sectors. In this context, the concept of waste would no longer exist, as waste would become a material resource. Therefore, this study analyses the behaviours of two unbound mixed recycled aggregates (MRA) in the structural layers of an unpaved rural road with low traffic (category T43). The sections were built on inappropriate soil (A-7-6) with a high degree of free swelling. The experimental road consisted of three sections: the first was made with natural aggregates (NA) that were used as a control, the second was composed of MRA in the subbase and NA in the base, and the third section was completely composed of MRA. The materials were characterised in the laboratory. The behaviours of the structural layers in the experimental road were determined by controlling compaction (“in situ” density and moisture) and measuring the deflections and load capacity (deflectometer) during the 18 months after construction. The results show that the sections made with recycled aggregates meet the technical specifications required by General Technical Specifications for Road and Bridge Works (PG-3). Therefore, the water-soluble sulphate content and Los Angeles abrasion coefficient limits can be increased for recycled aggregates without compromising the quality of this type of road with low traffic. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study regarding the use of unbound MRA made from construction and demolition waste (CDW) in the construction of an unpaved rural road with low traffic on an expansive clay subgrade.

Resource consumption analysis in the governance of transport infrastructure in a developing country

This paper provides a detailed estimate of fuel consumption rates for six representative vehicle classes on different types of rural roads in South Africa for use in macroscopic analysis during road planning. The vehicle classes are: Cars, light petrol-driven vehicles other than cars, light goods vehicles, medium-sized goods vehicles, heavy goods vehicles and buses. Measured and estimated fuel consumption rates on different paved and unpaved rural road types in flat, rolling and mountainous terrain are supplied

Implications of Climate Change for Ghana’s Economy

Long-run economic development in Ghana is potentially vulnerable to anthropogenic climate change given the country’s dependence on rain-fed agriculture, hydropower and unpaved rural roads. We use a computable general equilibrium model, informed by detailed sector studies, to estimate the economy-wide impacts of climate change under four climate projections. Climate change is found to always reduce national welfare, with poor and urban households and the northern Savannah zone being the worst affected. However, there is wide variation across scenarios in the size of climate impacts and in the relative importance of sectoral impact channels, thus underscoring the need for multi-sector approaches that account for climate uncertainty. Our analysis of adaptation options indicates that investing in agricultural research and extension, and improved road surfaces, are potentially cost-effective means of mitigating most of the damages from climate change in Ghana.

Optimized Maintenance Standards for Unpaved Road Networks Based on Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Unpaved roads play a crucial role in the economic and social development of societies, linking rural communities to education, health services, and markets. The asset value of unpaved roads is low compared with national and provincial road networks, because agencies responsible for rural roads management lack the resources to assess and maintain the network properly. Lack of resources is especially critical in developing countries, where the majority of the population lives in rural areas and where few tools are available for sustainable management of the unpaved network. The main objective for this study was to develop and validate cost-effective maintenance standards for unpaved rural roads. The study was directed at improving the management process of unpaved road networks that serve rural populations. The scope was to develop maintenance standards that can be used by agencies in charge of network management, given available resources and technical skills. The developed four-step methodology evaluates an unpaved road network for 4 years, identifies the effects of maintenance treatments on the condition of roads from field data analysis, defines maintenance strategies, and develops optimal maintenance standards. The study was part of a 4-year project conducted at the University of Waterloo, in Ontario, Canada, that resulted in the development of a sustainable management system for rural road networks in developing countries. The proposed standards were applied and successfully validated and were demonstrated to be adaptable to varying climates, budgets, traffic, and road structures.

&lt;b&gt;Performance assessment of a microsprinkler&lt;b&gt;

Surface hydrological processes are essential to the understanding and prediction of soil erosion. Several equipments are used to measure infiltration rate, runoff and soil loss. However, researchers build their own equipment due to the specific sites where the measurements are performed. This study evaluated the performance of a microsprinkler developed to measure the hydrological processes on unpaved rural roads. The microsprinkler is portable, lightweight, easy to operate, and also low cost. The measured parameters refer to different physical aspects of the rainfall produced as: intensity, drop size, kinetic energy and the simulation area. The microsprinkler was tested at different heights and pressures. The main results obtained: the intensity of simulated rainfall was 71.4 - 148.3 mmh-1, the drop size ranged from 0.3 to 1.2 mm (mean 0.7 mm), the kinetic energy of rainfall varied between 51 and 77% compared with a natural rainfall of similar intensity, and the simulation area had 0.28 - 0.56 m2 (mean 0.40 m2). The parameters obtained in this study are within the limit of others simulators reported in the literature.

Mapping of Airborne Particulate Matter Collected Using Two Sensors along US-Mexico Border

Particulate matter (PM) emissions from various sources can have significant effect on human health and environmental quality especially in the Chihuahuan Desert region along US-Mexico border. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of road dust texture and vehicular speed on airborne PM concentrations from different unpaved rural roads using two sampling techniques (DustTrak R , and Sticky-tape). The surface soil textures of unpaved roads varied from silty clay to loam with less than 4% soil moisture content at the time of PM measurement. Sticky tape method in seven experiment sites showed that PM ranged from 0.529 to 3.054 mg m -3 , and DustTrak R measurements showed that PM 2.5 concentration ranged from 1.11 to 37.1 mg m-3 at 1 m height. An exponential relationship was obtained between PM 2.5 by DustTrak R and vehicle speeds with an average slope of -1.619 mg m -3 s -1 . The concentration of PM measured with the Sticky-tape decreased with increasing height of measurement. Both PM measurement techniques provided a good approximation of PM emissions at different vehicles speeds, unpaved roads and position of the instrument above ground level for a variety of unpaved roads. The low cost sticky tape method has the potential to further determine and abiotic (elemental composition) and biotic (fungus) particles in airborne PM.