Unmarried Parents Research Articles

Longitudinal Changes in Epigenetic Age Acceleration Across Childhood and Adolescence

Individuals exposed to discrimination may exhibit greater epigenetic age acceleration (ie, cellular indicators of premature aging) over time, but few studies have examined longitudinal changes in epigenetic age acceleration, the heterogeneity in these changes for diverse groups of youths, and contextual explanations (ie, discrimination) for differences by ethnicity or race. To provide a descriptive illustration of changes in epigenetic age acceleration across childhood and adolescence among an ethnically and racially diverse sample of youths. This cohort study leveraged longitudinal data on a large sample of youths from low-income households in 20 large urban US cities who provided repeated assessments of saliva tissue samples at ages 9 and 15 years for DNA methylation analysis. Of 4898 youths from the Future of Families and Child Well-Being study, an ongoing study that oversampled children born to unmarried parents from 1998 to 2000, 2039 were included in the present analysis, as these youths had salivary DNA methylation data assayed and publicly available. Analyses were conducted from March 2023 to June 2024. Racialized intrusive encounters with police (eg, stop and frisk and racial slurs). Analyses were conducted to examine longitudinal changes in salivary epigenetic age acceleration over time, whether such changes varied across ethnically and racially diverse groups of youths, and whether police intrusion was associated with variation across ethnic and racial groups. Among 2039 youths (mean [SD] age at baseline, 9.27 [0.38] years; 1023 [50%] male and 1016 [50%] female; 917 [45%] Black, 430 [21%] Hispanic or Latino, 351 [17%] White, and 341 [17%] other, including multiple races and self-identified other) with salivary epigenetic clocks at 9 and 15 years of age, longitudinal results showed that White youths exhibited less accelerated epigenetic aging over time than did Black and Hispanic or Latino youths and those reporting other or multiple races or ethnicities from ages 9 to 15 years, particularly in the Hannum (B, 1.54; 95% CI, 0.36-2.18), GrimAge (B, 1.31; 95% CI, 0.68-1.97), and DunedinPACE epigenetic clocks (B, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.11-0.44). Across these clocks and the PhenoAge clock, police intrusion was associated with Black youths' more accelerated epigenetic aging (Hannum: B, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.03-0.23; GrimAge: B, 0.09; 95% CI, 0.03-0.18; PhenoAge: B, 0.08; 95% CI, 0.02-0.18; DunedinPACE: B, 0.01; 95% CI, 0.01-0.03). The transition from childhood to adolescence may represent a sensitive developmental period when racism can have long-term deleterious impacts on healthy human development across the life span. Future research should build on the present study and interrogate which social regularities and policies may be perpetuating discrimination against ethnically and racially minoritized adolescents.

Natural Selection Across Three Generations of Americans.

We investigate natural selection on polygenic scores in the contemporary US, using the Health and Retirement Study. Across three generations, scores which correlate negatively (positively) with education are selected for (against). However, results only partially support the economic theory of fertility as an explanation for natural selection. The theory predicts that selection coefficients should be stronger among low-income, less educated, unmarried and younger parents, but these predictions are only half borne out: coefficients are larger only among low-income parents and unmarried parents. We also estimate effect sizes corrected for noise in the polygenic scores. Selection for some health traits is similar in magnitude to that for cognitive traits.

Examining predictors of relationship dissolution among unmarried parents: Applying the vulnerability-stress-adaptation framework.

Prior research has established that parents who are in a relationship, yet unmarried at the time of their child's birth, are at an increased risk of relationship instability. However, the processes that may lead to the dissolution of these unmarried parents' couple relationships are less clear. Guided by the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model, the present study examined data from a sample of 1,575 mother and father dyads who participated in the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study over a 9-year period. A mixed effects Cox regression model was used to investigate how unmarried parents' reports of enduring vulnerability (depressive symptoms) over time influenced the onset of relationship dissolution between the time their focal child was 1- and 9-years old. Further, the potential mediating effect of mothers' and fathers' reports of stressful events (parenting stress) and adaptive processes (couple relationship interactions and coparenting behaviors) on the association between depressive symptoms and relationship dissolution by the 9-year follow-up were also examined. Results indicated that mothers' and fathers' reports of experiencing depressive symptoms over time were associated with relationship dissolution. Further, perceptions of couple interactions emerged as a significant mediator at the 3- (mothers) and 5- (mothers and fathers) year follow-up. Coparenting behaviors were a significant mediator for mothers and fathers at the 3- and 5-year follow-up. These results highlight how experiencing depressive symptoms over time, as well as perceptions of couple interactions and coparenting behaviors throughout the early years of parenting, are salient factors in the instability of unmarried parents' relationships. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Constitutionality of Inheritance Rights for Extramarital Children: Assessing the Legal Response under Balinese Customary Law

This article analyzes the inheritance rights of extramarital children under the post-Constitutional Court decision of Balinese customary law. Any child born of unmarried parents or out of adultery is stigmatized as an extramarital child (walad al zina) for his entire life and forbidden from inheriting an estate from his biological father. This legal issue is chosen as the main subject of this study is because of the legal circumstance in which the Balinese community does not grant status to extramarital children in matters of inheritance from the Purusa line. Hindu-Balinese religious leaders such as Parisada and the Traditional Village Council have never upheld the Constitutional Court’s ruling that states that children born out of wedlock have civil relations with their biological fathers. Islamic religious leaders have followed up on the Constitutional Court’s decision by issuing a fatwa of the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI). The fatwa imposes an obligation on biological fathers to separate their wealth for a guarantee of life to children. Applying the statutory approach, conceptual approach, sociological approach, and case approach, it can be understood that children born out of wedlock (the Balinese call it begin at children) have no status as heirs in the Purusa line but have inheritance rights from their mother and their mother’s family.

AEEG in the first 3 days after extremely preterm delivery relates to neurodevelopmental outcomes

ObjectivesInvestigate relationships between aEEG in the first 72 h in extremely preterm infants with 1) infant, medical, and environmental factors, and 2) infant feeding and neurobehavioral outcomes at term and school-age.MethodsSixty-four preterm infants (≤28 weeks gestation) were enrolled within the first 24-hours of life and had two-channel aEEG until 72 h of life. Standardized neurobehavioral and feeding assessments were conducted at term, and parent-reported outcomes were documented at 5–7 years.ResultsLower aEEG Burdjalov scores (adjusted for gestational age) were related to vaginal delivery (p = 0.04), cerebral injury (p = 0.01), Black race (p < 0.01) and having unmarried parents (p = 0.02). Lower Burdjalov scores related to less NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale arousal (p = 0.002) at term and poorer BRIEF global executive function (p = 0.004), inhibition (p = 0.007), working memory (p = 0.02), material organization (p = 0.0008), metacognition (p = 0.01), and behavioral regulation (p = 0.02) at 5–7 years. We did not observe relationships of early aEEG to feeding outcomes or sensory processing measures.ConclusionEarly aEEG within the first 72 h of life was related to medical and sociodemographic factors as well as cognitive outcome at 5–7 years.

Post-traumatic stress disorder in a national sample of preadolescent children 9 to 10 years old: Prevalence, correlates, clinical sequelae, and treatment utilization

Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been well characterized in adults, its epidemiology in children is unclear. The current study provides the first population-based examination of the prevalence of PTSD, sociodemographic and psychiatric correlates, clinical sequelae, and associations with psychiatric treatment in preadolescents 9-10 years old in the United States. Data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (release 5.0) was analyzed. Participants (unweighted n = 11,875) were recruited from 21 sites across the United States. Current and lifetime PTSD prevalence were estimated, as was treatment use among children with PTSD. Sociodemographic, psychiatric correlates and sequelae of PTSD were analyzed using logistic regression, as was the association between PTSD and psychiatric treatment. After the application of propensity weights, lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 2.17%. Sexual minority status, being multiracial, having unmarried parents, and family economic insecurity were associated with greater odds of PTSD. Among psychiatric disorders, separation anxiety was most strongly associated with PTSD, although general comorbid psychopathology was associated with greater odds of PTSD. Prior history of PTSD predicted a new onset of other psychiatric disorders after PTSD remission. Nearly one in three children with lifetime PTSD did not receive psychiatric treatment, despite negative long-term outcomes of PTSD and significant psychiatric comorbidity. Even among preadolescents who experience full remission of PTSD, a significant risk for future psychiatric illness remains. Further, the current findings underscore the need for improved efforts to reduce unmet treatment needs among those with PTSD at this age.

Cooperative coparenting and the associations with adolescent behavioral problems and delinquency in unmarried families.

Coparenting in unmarried families is a protective factor for positive adolescent adjustment. Although the relations between coparenting and adolescent outcomes have been investigated, it remains unclear whether the specific patterns of maternal and paternal coparenting are associated with adolescent behavioral outcomes. The present study includs a longitudinal cohort of 1143 triads of unmarried parents and their adolescents to examine the associations between different patterns of coparenting and adolescent behavioral problems and delinquency. The data were drawn from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study in the United States. Our study used six waves of publicly available data at children's birth, ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15. The latent profile analyses identified four coparenting profiles of maternal and paternal coparenting perceived by the other unmarried parent. Comparing average levels of coparenting between mothers and fathers, the profiles were entitled Low Mom-Low Dad, High Mom-Medium Dad, Low Mom-Medium Dad, and High Mom-High Dad. Parentscharacteristics, such as cohabitation and marital status, predicted the likelihood of being in cooperative coparenting profiles. Furthermore, all the identified coparenting profiles predicted adolescent externalizing behavioral problems; only the high mom cooperative coparenting profiles predicted adolescent internalizing behavioral problems; none of the coparenting profiles predicted adolescent delinquency. Our study adds empirical evidence for coparenting research by revealing that coparenting patterns vary in unmarried families and that cooperative coparenting benefits child behavioral outcomes. The findings encourage introducing different coparenting training programs targeting unmarried parents'diverse needs, thus promoting positive adolescent adjustment.

Social Determinants of Health Are Associated with Failed Bowel Management for Children with Anorectal Malformations.

Children with anorectal malformations (ARMs) benefit from bowel management programs (BMPs) to manage constipation or fecal incontinence. We aimed to understand the role of social determinants of health (SDOH) in outcomes following BMPs in this population. A single-institution, institutional review board (IRB) approved, retrospective review was performed in children with ARM who underwent BMP from 2014 to 2021. Clinical, surgical, and SDOH data were collected. Children were stratified as clean or not clean per the Rome IV criteria at the completion of BMP. Descriptive statistics were computed. Categorical variables were analyzed via Fisher's exact tests and continuous variables with Mood's median tests. In total, 239 patients who underwent BMP were identified; their median age was 6.62 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 4.78-9.83). Of these, 81 (34%) were not clean after completing BMP. Children with prior history of antegrade enema procedures had a higher rate of failure. Children who held public insurance, lived within driving distance, had unmarried parents, lived with extended family, and lacked formal support systems had a significant association with BMP failure (p < 0.05 for all). Type of ARM, age at repair, type of repair, age at BMP, and type of BMP regimen were not significantly associated with failure. There is a significant correlation of failure of BMPs with several SDOH elements in patients with ARM. Attention to SDOH may help identify high-risk patients in whom additional care may lead improved outcomes following BMP.

What makes a father: differentiation of unmarried and divorced fathers in the context of custody under the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights

Abstract While marriage has traditionally served as the connective tissue between fathers, mothers, and their children before the law, the increasing commonality of cohabitation-based relationships without marriage has led to many children being born outside of the marriage union. This has complicated the legal understanding of fatherhood in particular, which has traditionally relied on the contractual nature and stability of the marital union to be legally defined and understood. States are often ill-equipped to handle parental separation and child custody in the case of civil unions, and unmarried fathers tend to have fewer venues of legal protection compared to divorced fathers in that regard. The purpose of this article is to identify the legal challenges surrounding unmarried fathers and parental rights in the context of the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights. It examines the elements of what constitutes legal fatherhood, identifies the main human rights issues surrounding unmarried fathers, and assesses the reasons for legal differentiation between divorced and unmarried fathers. Importantly, conclusions are drawn as to whether and why these differences are justified from a legal perspective. This article contributes to the need for more research in the area of father–child relationships and aims to provide guidance for policy and law-making with regard to unmarried parents in the context of children’s rights.

Factors of e-cigarette use among Malaysian adolescents: A systematic review

E-cigarette use remains a virulent issue in public health worldwide. Like various tobacco products, smoking e-cigarettes cause significant health risks to consumers, especially adolescents. To understand the enormity of this matter, it is best to be aware of the factors linked with using e-cigarettes to develop preventive strategies at an early adolescent stage. This current systematic review aims to explore and scrutinize the latest information on the factors linked to e-cigarette use among adolescents in Malaysia. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement were employed in this systematic review. The literature search used available online databases (Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar) to select original articles published between 2013 and 2022. A total of 5 articles were chosen to be incorporated in this systematic review. Various factors linked to e-cigarette use were discovered, such as risky lifestyle behavior, including alcohol and drug abuse, unmarried parents living together, insufficient knowledge and awareness of the health and well-being effects of e-cigarettes, and lack of exposure to e-cigarette education in school. Therefore, targeted prevention steps dealing with policies, laws, and regulations must be developed to address contributing factors leading to e-cigarette use to solve the evolving issue effectively. Thus, it is necessary to monitor and evaluate current programs and interventions on e-cigarette use among adolescents in Malaysia to prevent its expansion towards the community.

Early adverse childhood experiences and adolescent sleep outcomes

BackgroundSleep is critical for physical, mental, and emotional health. This may be particularly true for adolescents experiencing rapid physiological changes. Relatively little is known about how adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are implicated in adolescent experiences with sleep. ObjectiveWe use data (from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS, n = 3444) to assess the relationship between early ACE exposure (by age 5) and various adolescent sleep outcomes. We anticipate that early ACEs will be associated with poor adolescent sleep outcomes. Methods: FFCWS data includes survey responses from parents and/or primary caregivers and children at birth and approximately one, three, five, nine, and 15 years later. The FFCWS oversampled unmarried parents with low educational attainment, income, and from marginalized racial-ethnic groups. Models of sleep outcomes included ordinary least squares, Poisson, negative binomial, logistic, and order logistic regression, as appropriate. ResultsDespite a high number of ACEs, adolescent hours of sleep were consistent with published recommendations. Other measures of sleep indicated adolescents in the sample experience worse sleep on most other measures. ACE exposure was associated with difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep. More ACEs was also related with problematic sleep environments (i.e., place slept) and increased snoring. There was some evidence that ACEs were related to less sleep on weekends and increased social jet lag (different patterns of sleep between weekdays and weekends). ConclusionsOur findings suggest that ACEs could be important diagnostic data for clinicians in primary care and behavioral sleep medicine practice.

Coparenting Profiles and Children's Socioemotional Outcomes in Unmarried Parents with Low-Income.

This study aimed to examine patterns of mother-father coparenting relationship quality and their associations with child empathy, emotional insecurity, and behavior problems in families with low income. Given the growing number of nonmarital births and the high risk of relationship dissolution among cohabiting couples living with low income, it is important to examine the coparenting relationships among racially diverse unmarried couples from low-income contexts. To date, little research has assessed patterns of coparenting relationships and their associations with child socioemotional outcomes among this population. Participants were 4,266 unmarried couples and their preschool-aged children from the Building Strong Families study. Latent profile analysis was conducted. Latent profile analysis of survey data from mothers and fathers revealed four coparenting patterns: Profile 1: low quality, more negative maternal coparenting perceptions (7.2%); Profile 2: moderate-high quality, high congruence, slightly more negative paternal coparenting perceptions (25.2%); Profile 3: low congruence, severely more negative maternal coparenting perceptions (11.8%); and Profile 4: mutual high-quality coparenting (55.8%). Children of parents with the mutual high-quality coparenting profile had the most positive outcomes according to maternal reports of child socioemotional development. Highly congruent and positive perceptions of the other parent as a coparent were found to be significant promotive factors for positive child socioemotional development. Family strengthening policies and programs for unmarried couples with low income should target and support the development of mutually satisfying, high-quality coparenting relationships, with the ultimate goal to improve developmental outcomes for young children in such families.

Adolescent siblings of children with cancer: Resource-based profiles, normalization, and search for meaning in life.

Adolescent siblings of children with cancer jointly face the experience of having a brother or sister with cancer and being in the developmental period of adolescence themselves. Based on Hobfoll's conservation of resources theory, we aimed to identify profiles based on two distinct resources: sense of hope (personal resource) and perceived social support (social resource). Both have been found to be vital for optimal functioning during adolescence. Further, we examined differences in these profiles with regard to two distal outcomes: normalization (a coping strategy) and search for meaning in life (a commonly assumed adolescent developmental task). One hundred and elevenIsraeli adolescent siblings (aged 13-17) completed self-report measures. Two distinct resource-based profiles were identified: "high resources" and "low resources." Participants with "high resources" had a higher sense of hope and higher social support; were significantly more likely to live with married parents than with unmarried parents; had marginally fewer siblings; and scored higher on normalization and search for meaning in life than did participants with "low resources." The study outcomes highlight the essential role of resources for this population. Such resources seem to be helpful for normalization, a coping strategy whose focus is on facilitating regular family routines, and for the siblings' search for meaning in life. Practitioners who work with families in the context of childhood cancer should aim to help these siblings obtain key resources, such as social support, and to actively pursue their goals.

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury in Preadolescents.

There is a dearth of literature on the prevalence and predictors of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) history and onset among preadolescent youth. This gap in the literature is significant given evidence suggesting that NSSI is a robust predictor of negative mental health outcomes, and that early onset NSSI may be associated with a more severe course of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors. This study aimed to evaluate sociodemographic characteristics, psychiatric disorders, and suicidal ideation (SI) in relation to NSSI onset and history in preadolescents. Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, which recruited a diverse sample of 11 875 youth aged 9 to 10 years. The primary outcome measures were lifetime history and recent onset of NSSI. Measures included sociodemographics and the K-SADS diagnostic interview assessing psychopathology and SI. Female sex and identifying as Black were associated with lower odds of lifetime NSSI. Identifying as a sexual minority, having unmarried parents, and a low family income were associated with higher odds of lifetime NSSI. Although depression was most predictive of NSSI history and onset, a range of internalizing and externalizing disorders, greater comorbidity, and SI also were predictive. Given that NSSI was associated with a range of mental health disorders and comorbidity, it may be best conceptualized as a transdiagnostic phenomenon. Findings highlight key sociodemographic and diagnostic factors that may help to direct screening efforts in preadolescents, particularly sexual minority status and depression.

Pre-Separation family relationships and post-separation involvement among nonresident fathers in the United States

ABSTRACT The transition to separation is an important time for the re-configuration of family relationships and maintaining father involvement. Pre-separation family relationships may affect father involvement over this transition. This study examines associations among family relationship attributes prior to separation (father engagement, coparenting support, mothers’ perceptions of paternal competence, marital status) and post-separation father involvement (contact, in-kind support, shared responsibility). Data were from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a large national survey with an oversampling of nonmarital births (Reichman et al., 2001). Included were mothers who lived with the father all or most of the time around a focal child’s third birthday (Y3) and were separated from the father around the child’s fifth birthday (Y5) (N = 371). Structural equation modeling results showed that family relationship attributes at Y3 were associated with post-separation father involvement at Y5. Mothers’ perceptions of paternal competence were positively associated with contact. Coparenting support and unmarried parent status were associated with greater father responsibility, and father engagement was positively associated with in-kind support provision. Results held, even when controlling for structural factors concurrent with post-separation father involvement. Results suggest that different aspects of pre-separation relationships may differentially affect domains of father involvement after separation.

Acceptability of Human Papillomavirus Vaccine by the Population of Two Health Districts in Yaounde-Cameroon

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections with high oncogenic risk are responsible for 7.7% of cancers (mainly cervical cancer) in developing countries. Vaccination is considered to be one of the greatest public health successes, but despite its proven effectiveness, vaccination does not longer enjoy popular support, which leads to a coverage in terms of HPV vaccine almost non-existent. A descriptive and analytical cross-sectional study was conducted in the health districts of Nkolndongo and Djoungolo, with the aim of analyzing the acceptability of Human Papillomavirus vaccine in these health districts. From a structured questionnaire administered to 330 parents and 32 Community health Workers (CHWs), we found an insufficient 33.6% moderate level of HPV vaccine acceptability, a statistical significant association between parents’ marital status and HPV vaccine acceptability (OR = 0.369; P value = 0.027; 95%; CI = [0.153, 0.890]), a statistically significant association between knowing someone with cervical cancer and accepting her child to get vaccinated against HPV (OR =0.409; P-value = 0.006; 95%; CI= [0.217; 0.769]), a statistically significant association between accepting HPV vaccine and agreeing to have her child vaccinated against HPV at 51.6%, and a statistically significant association between knowing that HPV vaccine was available in health facilities and its acceptability (OR=0.210; P-value = 0.021; 95%; CI = [0.056; 0.793]). To expand HPV vaccination coverage, various activities should be carried out among the population to improve their knowledge about cervical cancer and the availability of HPV vaccine. The focus should be on unmarried parents and parents engaged in a free union relationship. Health workers should use true life stories about cervical cancer as a means of raising awareness and the list of health facilities administrating HPV vaccine should be made known to the population.

Shared placement in nonmarital families: An initial look

AbstractObjectiveWe aim to examine the prevalence of shared placement in nonmarital cases, and we then consider whether and how nonmarital shared placement cases differ from sole mother cases across a variety of case characteristics and child support outcomes.BackgroundIn recent decades, shared placement has become increasingly common after divorce, but less is known about the prevalence of shared placement in nonmarital cases. Shared placement may have important implications for families, and little is known about its prevalence in cases of unmarried parents or about characteristics of nonmarital families that have shared placement arrangements.MethodLeveraging unique administrative data on more than 6,000 nonmarital court cases, we examine the prevalence of shared placement, case characteristics of shared placement compared with sole placement cases, and child support measures by placement type. We use multivariate regression and bivariate analyses.ResultsAlthough sole mother placement remains the norm, data indicate an increase in shared placement arrangements in recent cohorts of nonmarital cases. We find parents with shared placement arrangements tend to be slightly more advantaged across several measures. On average, shared placement cases have lower child support orders and payments and substantively higher compliance rates in the year after petition.ConclusionShared placement is increasing in nonmarital cases in recent years. Nonmarital families who have shared placement arrangements differ in important ways from families with sole mother custody.ImplicationsFindings suggest the importance of expanding the relevant shared placement literature and policy discussion to consider nonmarital cases in addition to divorce cases.

We get by with family: Maternal partnership transitions and extended kin coresidence

AbstractObjectiveThis study examines the extent to which mothers coreside with extended kin during partnership transitions.BackgroundParental relationship changes are increasingly common, especially among unmarried parents. Although research shows that families often coreside out of economic necessity, extended kin coresidence as a function of maternal relationship changes has not been explored. Using life course theory, this study examines where and with whom mothers and their children live during partnership transitions.MethodData are from 2,886 mothers who participated in the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Bivariate and multinomial logistic regression, random effects, and fixed effects models were estimated to determine if mothers' coresidential relationships with extended kin were formed by changes in mothers' coresidential romantic partnership statuses.ResultsMothers' partnership changes were associated with extended kin coresidence, especially among unmarried mothers. By Year 9, mothers were more likely to live “elsewhere.” Mothers' parity and multipartnered fertility decreased their chances of living with extended kin.ConclusionThis study indicates that maternal relationship changes provoke family instability and reliance on extended kin. Mothers' transitions contribute to “network fatigue” and homelessness.ImplicationsHousing support for mothers may mitigate instability associated with maternal relationship transitions and protect extended kin against transitions.

The minimum wage and parent time use.

This study used a differences-in-differences strategy with national time diary data from 2003 to 2018 to examine the effects of minimum wage changes on parents' time with children and in child-related activities. Findings indicate that a $1 increase in the minimum wage was associated with a small increase (2.6%) in the likelihood parents with one or more children under age 16 spent time actively caring for or helping children on weekends, and in more total time with children (a 2% increase in secondary child care time). In general, coefficients were larger for mothers' time use, particularly non-employed mothers, with potential implications for gender disparities in caregiving. Unmarried parents and parents of color showed increases in their time spent in activities related to children's health (~55% increase). Mothers showed an increase (8%) in the likelihood they spent any time in child education-related activities, and increases in child care time appeared concentrated among parents whose youngest child was 6-15 years of age. Findings suggest that increases in state minimum wages may lead to small increases in parents' time investments in children, with some variation among subgroups.

Mental Health Patterns of Young Children of Unmarried Parents: A Latent Class Analysis

Mental Health Patterns of Young Children of Unmarried Parents: A Latent Class Analysis