Unmanned Aircraft Systems Operations Research Articles

Privacy’s Sky-High Battle: The Use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems for Law Enforcement in the European Union

Benefiting from the rapid advancements in Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) technology with enhanced tracking and data collection capabilities, law enforcement authorities re-discovered air as a dimension where state power can be exercised in a more affordable, accessible, and compact way. On the other hand, during law enforcement operations, UAS can collect various types of data that can be personal or sensitive, threatening the right to privacy and data protection of the data subjects. Risks include challenges related to data security, bulk data collection, the diminished transparency and fairness resulting from the inconspicuous nature of UAS, as well as ethical concerns intertwined with privacy and data protection. Upon examination of the legal framework including the General Data Protection Regulation the Law Enforcement Directive, various Aviation rules, and the new proposal for the Artificial Intelligence Act, it becomes apparent that the EU legal framework’s adequacy in safeguarding privacy and data protection against law enforcement use of UAS is context-dependent, varying across use cases. The current framework lacks clarity, leading to arbitrary application and limited protection for data subjects. Enforcement of safeguards is insufficient, and the Aviation Regulations, applicable to law enforcement UAS, require member states' opt-in, which has not occurred as of the authors’ knowledge. The Artificial Intelligence Act addresses UAS operations but focuses on market risks rather than obligations imposed on law enforcement authorities. Consequently, the existing framework is rendered inadequate for medium to high-risk law enforcement operations, leaving individuals vulnerable and insufficiently protected against intrusive UAS surveillance. Rectifying this involves addressing the enforcement gap and making the necessary amendments to relevant regulatory aspects. Additionally, the implementation of specific technical measures and steps to foster effective cooperation among stakeholders in UAS deployment for law enforcement is imperative.

Live Location Sharing System (L2S2): Empowering Management of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Operations

Transparency and confidence-building measures in Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) operations continue to be important topics of discussion in various contexts. Transparency helps build trust and alleviate concerns about the use of UAS, especially in sensitive areas or situations where privacy and security are paramount. Meanwhile, confidence-building measures aim to establish trust and mitigate potential risks associated with UAS operations, particularly in complex UAS operations involving multiple teams. These measures include implementing systems that enable the identification and tracking of UAS operations activities that can be achieved through technologies such as global positioning system (GPS)-based tracking systems. Although there are several UAS operations GPS-based management systems available in the market, it requires a certain initial investment cost that creates a barrier for some parties, particularly smaller organisations or those with limited budgets. Therefore, in this study, we have developed a web-based application called as Live Location Sharing System (L2S2) by leveraging the capabilities of Traccar, a free and open-source GPS tracking system. Through this system, the movement activities of the Malaysian Space Agency (MYSA) UAS operation teams can be monitored in real-time by the mission commander, which has finally empowered the management of UAS operations as a whole.

Enhancing sustainable urban air transportation: Low-noise UAS flight planning using noise assessment simulator

Low-altitude flights of unmanned aircraft systems (UASs), such as drones, can cause substantial noise pollution in urban areas. This study aims to tackle the crucial issue of noise in UAS flight planning and analyze the feasibility of implementing low-noise urban flights at a micro level. We employ a virtual flight simulator to accurately model the UAS noise impact in realistic flights and optimize the flight path via a heuristic algorithm accordingly. The flight noise assessment incorporates a sound source modeling technique for practical UAS models and an efficient Gaussian beam tracing method for outdoor noise propagation in realistic environments. Case studies for flight simulations are conducted in a representative resident community and metropolitan area to evaluate the noise impact resulting from different flight paths. By comparing our approach with benchmark shortest-distance paths, we validate its effectiveness in significantly reducing en-route noise exposure, encompassing both instantaneous and continuous noise levels. This method holds great potential for contributing to the planning and management of urban air transport systems. It effectively mitigates noise impact, promoting quieter and more environmentally friendly UAS operations and sustainable urban transportation.

Current approaches in UAV Operational Risk Assessment and Practical Considerations

The expansion of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) is creating new markets, particularly in Urban Air Mobility (UAM), which presents unique challenges. Beyond the risk of mid-air collisions, UAM services in urban areas introduce ground risks to buildings, traffic routes, and pedestrians. This research explores trends in Ground Risk models for different operation planning stages: strategic, pre-tactical, and tactical. It offers a logical pipeline for UAS operators, emphasizing detailed analysis and data source considerations, along with the importance of model interoperability. Using a Naples case study, the research provides practical steps for national authorities to streamline the UAS authorization process.

Features of the influence of working conditions on psychophysiological functions of unmanned aircraft systems operators

This study was conducted to determine the influence and assess the impact of specific factors of working conditions on the psychophysiological functions of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) operators. The research involved 41 military personnel (men aged 20-35 years old) who operated the I class “Light” UAS and were engaged in a varied range of professional tasks. The aim was to understand the complex impact of these distinct factors on operators during the execution of their duties. To examine their psychophysiological status, we employed modified methods using the PFI-2 hardware/software complex. The following indicators were determined: accuracy of reaction to a moving object, strength of nervous processes, functional mobility of nervous processes, simple visual-motor reaction, complex visual-motor reaction, orientation in space, and visual memory. The role of climatic and microclimatic factors in professional activity was studied using a questionnaire, where their influence on functional status was assessed on a 100-point scale. To facilitate further theoretical development and practical application, we determined the investigated factors integral impact on shaping operators’ subjective perception and specific psychophysiological qualities that are professionally significant for military personnel. The preliminary analysis showed the heterogeneity of feelings the influence of various components of the external environment factor. To correct this heterogeneity, we used the non-linear correction method (logarithmization of analyzed data, when large values of an analyzed parameter could be reduced due to the properties of logarithmic function). Then, a correlation (Spearman correlation coefficient) and regression analysis of studied parameters has been carried out with a preliminary check of the structure of operator perceptions for normality using the Shapiro-Wilk test. As a result, a list of psychophysiological qualities that change under the influence of the external environment factor in individuals with different perceptivity to its components has been selected.

Perception of noise from unmanned aircraft systems: Efficacy of metrics for indoor and outdoor listener positions.

This paper presents the results of a listening experiment designed to assess annoyance and perceived loudness (PL) for several unmanned aircraft system (UAS) operations, with the listener simulated in indoor and outdoor positions. This research investigated (i) how participant responses change depending on UAS operation, (ii) which broadband metrics are most suitable for representing annoyance and PL, (iii) differences in noise level required to result in equal participant responses to different operations, and (iv) which sound quality metrics (SQMs) are significant for UAS noise perception. Results indicate annoyance and PL responses were greatest for landing operations with flyovers being the least annoying or loud. LAeq, LASmax, and loudness (N5) were the strongest predictors in representing annoyance. Offset analysis predicted small differences in annoyance responses between flyovers and other operations, but also indicated that flyovers would require an increase to LASmax of 3.3 to 6.3 dB compared to other operations to achieve equal PL. Loudness was the most significant SQM, with minor contributions from impulsivity for annoyance and PL when outside, and tonality for PL when indoors. These findings contribute to the understanding of UAS noise perception for the development of metrics and assessment methods accounting for the characteristics of UAS operations.

Implementation of SORA Methodology Version 2.5 for Medical Delivery Using Quadrotor UAS in Remote Areas

The innovative quadrotor Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) approach for delivery missions presents significant opportunities to address logistical distribution challenges (i.e. medical delivery) in remote areas. The efficiency of quadrotor UAS, which does not need additional infrastructure like runways, makes it increasingly applicable to remote regions. However, the potential implementation of UAS for medical delivery missions comes with considerable risks, such as collisions with manned aircraft or UAS crashes that could damage infrastructure and cause fatal injuries to human life. Therefore, in UAS operations, a method of operational risk assessment is needed to ensure safety, resilience, and operational success. The Joint Authorities for the Rulemaking of Unmanned Systems (JARUS) offers a risk assessment methodology named Specific Operational Risk Assessment (SORA) for UAS operations. The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the Indonesian Ministry of Transportation have recognised and approved this methodology as a risk assessment method for specific UAS categories. SORA provides a step-by-step framework in risk assessment to identify, evaluate, and determine necessary mitigation actions to achieve an acceptable means of compliance (MoC). EASA has announced using the latest version, SORA V2.5, planned for implementation in the fourth quarter of 2023. The Indonesian Ministry of Transportation also plans to adopt this latest version for UAS operations. Several updates and simplifications have been made to this version. Therefore, this paper presents the application of risk assessment using SORA V2.5 for medical delivery operations in remote areas using quadrotor UAS. The analysis in this paper covers each step of SORA V2.5, including risk identification and evaluation, as well as the implementation of mitigations in the conducted mission. The results indicate that SORA V2.5 can be implemented in this mission by taking appropriate mitigation actions to assure operational safety. There are also recommendations for optimising risk identification and it can complement the SORA methodology.

Capacity modelling for UAM

The management of the operation of unmanned aircraft systems and their integration into the common airspace faces various challenges, among which those associated with determining the airspace capacity can also be included. This paper focuses on this challenge and proposes an approach to determine the airspace capacity through the utilization of mathematical modelling, algorithmization, and statistical methods. The constructed model accurately determines airspace capacity, considering factors such as aircraft size, control methods, and potential conflicts resolved at the strategic level of traffic management. Results from simulations demonstrate the model’s validity and effectiveness, highlighting its potential application in planning and evaluating services that are provided to unmanned aircraft.

Multi-Objective Design of UAS Air Route Network Based on a Hierarchical Location–Allocation Model

This research concentrates on the Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) demand sites’ hierarchical location–allocation problem in air route network design. With demand sites (locations where UAS operations are requested) organized and allocated according to the spatial hierarchy of UAS traffic flows, the hierarchical structure guarantees resource conservation and economies of scale through traffic consolidation. Therefore, in this paper, the UAS route network with a three-level hierarchy is developed under a multi-objective decision-making framework, where concerns about UAS transportation efficiency from the user side and construction efficiency from the supplier side are both simultaneously considered. Specifically, a bi-level Hybrid Simulated Annealing Genetic Algorithm (HSAGA) with global and local search combined is proposed to determine the optimal number, location, and allocation of hierarchical sites. Moreover, using the information of site closeness and UAS demand distribution, two problem-specific local search operators are designed to explore elite neighborhood regions instead of all the search space. A case study based on the simulated UAS travel demand data of the Beijing area in China was conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, and the impact of critical parameter settings on the network layout was explored as well. Findings from this study will offer new insights for UAS traffic management in the future.

Evaluating U-Space for UAM in Dense Controlled Airspace

The operation of unmanned aircraft systems in shared airspace can serve as an accelerator for the global economy and a sensitive addition to the existing mix of transportation modes. For these reasons, concepts of Unmanned Traffic Management have been recently published, defining advanced rules for all potential participants in the operation of unmanned systems. Airspace primarily dedicated to automated unmanned system operations, referred to as U-space in Europe, needs to be designated with consideration for the surrounding airspace. This is especially important in cases where the airspace is controlled, and when declaring U-space airspace, it is necessary to pay particular attention to the density of surrounding air traffic. The goal of this article is to assess the suitability of establishing U-space airspace for Urban Air Mobility in terms of traffic density in a controlled area above the selected metropolis, which is Prague, Czech Republic. To achieve this goal, data on air traffic in the given area were analyzed to obtain precise information about the traffic distribution. Areas in which the establishment of U-space airspace is possible both without implementing dynamic reconfiguration and with the application of the dynamic reconfiguration concept were also selected. The result is the determination of whether it is possible to establish U-space in airspace, as in the analyzed case of the Ruzyně CTR, U-space can be introduced in 83 % of the territory.

AAM/goods delivery: main enablers for BVLOS routine operations within environment at low and medium risk

PurposeTheadvanced air mobility (AAM) is defined by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as safe, accessible, automated and affordable air transportation system for passengers and cargo, capable of serving previously hard-to-reach urban and rural sites. The purpose of this paper is to focus on explaining potential solutions, under study by the authors, which could support beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) operations for goods delivery in a safe way.Design/methodology/approachAccording to recent NASA-commissioned market studies, by 2030, there will be as many as 500 million flights a year for package delivery services and 750 million flights a year for passengers’ transportation (AAM). A significant number of these aircrafts will be unmanned aerial vehicles, meaning that they are self-flying or autonomous, of which the smallest ones are quadcopters: they are relatively inexpensive and are capable to perform various tasks, such as aerial observation, crop monitoring and treatment, search and rescue, power line monitoring and goods delivery. On the other hand, there are still many difficulties in introducing them into medium- and low-risk BVLOS routine operations for goods delivery: unfortunately, there are no regulations and technologies yet that enable these operations.FindingsThis conceptual paper outlines the studies about possible solutions, identified by authors, which could support BVLOS operations in a medium- and low-risk environment; in particular, the following aspects have been analysed: regulations, integrating control systems for drones, sensors (on board obstacle detection and avoidance), emergency management (emergency on ground system to identify safe landing areas), concepts of droneway (or flight corridors) and drones recovery hub.Originality/valueThe purpose of this paper is to provide a conceptual description of the possible solutions, under study by the authors, which could contribute enabling the BVLOS operations in a medium- and low-risk environment. The paper aims describing the state of the art, terms of regulations, classifications and limitations and describing possible conceptual solutions that could guarantee safety in introducing unmanned aircraft system operations inside urban areas.

Towards Safe and Efficient Unmanned Aircraft System Operations: Literature Review of Digital Twins’ Applications and European Union Regulatory Compliance

Unmanned aerial system/unmanned aircraft system (UAS) operations have increased exponentially in recent years. With the creation of new air mobility concepts, industries use cutting-edge technology to create unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for various applications. Due to the popularity and use of advanced technology in this relatively new and rapidly evolving context, a regulatory framework to ensure safe operations is essential. To reflect the several ongoing initiatives and new developments in the domain of European Union (EU) regulatory frameworks at various levels, the increasing needs, developments in, and potential uses of UAVs, particularly in the context of research and innovation, a systematic overview is carried out in this paper. We review the development of UAV regulation in the European Union. The issue of how to implement this new and evolving regulation in UAS operations is also tackled. The digital twin (DT)’s ability to design, build, and analyze procedures makes it one potential way to assist the certification process. DTs are time- and cost-efficient tools to assist the certification process, since they enable engineers to inspect, analyze, and integrate designs as well as express concerns immediately; however, it is fair to state that DT implementation in UASs for certification and regulation is not discussed in-depth in the literature. This paper underlines the significance of UAS DTs in the certification process to provide a solid foundation for future studies.

Dynamic Capacity Management for Air Traffic Operations in High Density Constrained Urban Airspace

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Traffic Management (UTM) is an active research subject as its proposed applications are increasing. UTM aims to enable a variety of UAS operations, including package delivery, infrastructure inspection, and emergency missions. That creates the need for extensive research on how to incorporate such traffic, as conventional methods and operations used in Air Traffic Management (ATM) are not suitable for constrained urban airspace. This paper proposes and compares several traffic capacity balancing methods developed for a UTM system designed to be used in highly dense, very low-level urban airspace. Three types of location-based dynamic traffic capacity management techniques are tested: street-based, grid-based, and cluster-based. The proposed systems are tested by simulating traffic within mixed (constrained and open) urban airspace based on the city of Vienna at five different traffic densities. Results show that using local, area-based clustering for capacity balancing within a UTM system improves safety, efficiency, and capacity metrics, especially when simulated or historical traffic data are used.

Noise Impact Assessment of UAS Operation in Urbanised Areas: Field Measurements and a Simulation

This article’s main topic is an assessment of unmanned aircraft system (UAS) noise pollution in several weight categories according to Regulation (EU) 2019/947 and its impact on the urban environment during regular operation. The necessity of solving the given problem is caused by an increasing occurrence of UASs in airspace and the prospect of introducing unmanned aircraft into broader commercial operations. This work aims to provide an overview of noise measurements of two UAS weight categories under natural atmospheric conditions to assess their impact on the surrounding environment. On top of that, modelling and simulations were used to observe and assess the noise emission characteristics. The quantitative results contain an assessment of the given noise restrictions based on the psychoacoustic impact and actual measured values inserted into the urban simulation scenario of the Zilina case study located in northwest Slovakia. It was preceded by a study of noise levels in certain areas to evaluate the variation level after UAS integration into the corresponding airspace. Following a model simulation of the C2 category, it was concluded that there was a marginal rise in the level of noise exposure, which would not exceed the prescribed standards of the Environmental Noise Directive.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS): Applications and Integration into Hazard Mitigation Planning

Abstract Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) (also referred to as Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles (UAVs), or drones) operations, focused on natural hazards, have experienced rapid expansion in the last decade. UAS uses before, during, and after natural hazard events, provide value for emergency management operations (e.g. Search-and-Rescue (SAR)), and post-event analytics. The Department of Homeland Security and Emergency Services (DHSES) manages UAS programs for public safety and emergency response activities in New York State. They also have the first FEMA-approved, locally adopted, web-based, interactive Hazard Mitigation Plans (HMPs). With recent advances in communication technologies (e.g. 5G), opportunities are emerging to establish a stewardship role to maximize regionwide UAS operations, including preparing for catastrophic natural hazards (e.g. earthquakes, hurricanes), leveraging existing HMPs, and incorporating new machine-learning techniques to use swarming networks before, during, and after a natural hazard event. A variety of stewardship approaches are discussed.

Measuring the Adoption of Drones: A Case Study of the United States Agricultural Aircraft Sector

Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), commonly referred to as drones, are an emerging technology that has changed the way many industries conduct business. Precision agriculture is one industry that has consistently been predicted to be a major locus of innovation for UAS. However, this has not been the case globally. The agricultural aircraft sector in the United States is used as a case study here to consider different metrics to evaluate UAS adoption, including a proposed metric, the normalized UAS adoption index. In aggregate, UAS operators only make up 5% of the number of agricultural aircraft operators. However, the annual number of new UAS operators exceeded that of manned aircraft operators in 2022. When used on a state-by-state basis, the normalized UAS adoption index shows that there are regional differences in UAS adoption with western and eastern states having higher UAS adoption rates while central states have significantly lower UAS adoption rates. This has implications for UAS operators, manufacturers, and regulators as this industry continues to develop at a rapid pace.

The influence of occupational environment on formation of psycho-emotional stress among remote pilots of unmanned aircraft systems

The aim of this study was to identify informative indicators and establish the level of perception of their impact on the formation of excessive psycho-emotional stress among remote pilots of unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) (class 1 “Light”) during their occupational activities. Materials and methods. 41 servicemen aged 20–35 years old, who had experience in the management of UASs (class I “Light”) and were involved in the performance of a wide range of functional duties as operators of the moving objects, were studied based on the specially developed questionnaire (100-point scale) that reflected questions about the perception of the stress factor impact during their occupational activities. Statistical analysis of data was performed by descriptive and nonparametric statistics, as well as cluster, stepwise discriminant and factor analysis using the software package STATISTICA 13.3. Results. Regarding the perceptions of “stress” factor influence, the UASs pilots (operators of moving objects) were divided into two groups: group 1 could be conventionally called “hypersusceptible”, and representatives of group 2 – “hyposusceptible”. At the same time, it was found that the resulting clustering of the data into two groups provided 99.9 % opportunity for further assignment of new operators to the designated groups using the obtained supporting discriminant model (solving rules). The hidden factors have been revealed that formed the functional state of the “hypersusceptible” UASs operators, which collectively explained 54.9 % of the data variance, and “hyposusceptible” ones, which collectively explained 62.1 % of the original data variance. Conclusions. Two groups of operators, “hypersusceptible” and “hyposusceptible” to the influence of stress factors have been distinguished. The hidden factors that formed the functional state of the “hypersusceptible” UAS operators have been highlighted (the first factor “formation of fear of death” (F1↑) had 33.2 % rate and the second hidden factor “susceptibility to sensory stimuli” (F2↑), covered 21.7 % of the analyzed data variance). Two hidden factors that formed the functional state of the “hyposusceptible” UAS operators have been identified (the first factor “concentration of attention to performance of the functional duties” (F1↓) and the second factor “increased responsibility for occupational activity results” (F2↓). It has been established that there were radically different mechanisms of their functional state regulation, and “hyposusceptible” operators were more adapted to the performance of their functional duties due to the mechanisms of harmonizing their functional state and reducing experiences from the influence of harmful stress-forming factors.

Towards the environmental noise assessment of Unmanned Aircraft Systems operations

The rapid expansion of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) sector poses a significant challenge for acoustic engineers working on the environmental noise impact assessment of these new aerial technologies. As widely recognised, the noise signatures and operational profiles of UAS differ significantly from conventional aircraft, and therefore, existing measurement procedures and assessment methods might not be able to provide an appropriate assessment of UAS noise. There are specific questions that should be addressed for a wider deployment of UAS operations without compromising communities’ health and well-being due to noise exposure: (i) how will communities respond to the unconventional noise signatures of UAS? and (ii) what measurement procedures and metric can ensure an accurate assessment of UAS noise impact? This publication describes the work carried out for the measurement and development of acoustic hemispheres for UAS operations containing sound level, frequency, and directivity information; and how this acoustic data can be used for noise mapping and auralization. Furthermore, a review of the state-of-the-art of noise metrics for UAS is presented, with a focus on existing gaps and further work required.

To the risk management methodology of unmanned aircraft systems

Operators of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), performing aeronautical work in accordance with the certification requirements of the Federal Aviation Regulations, are obliged to have a Flight Safety Management System (FSMS), the critical element of which is risk management. The utilization of the risk assessment methods and the development of corrective actions, used in manned aviation, is problematic due to the UAS operational characteristics. The article presents the FSMS methodology for UAS of category B (special category) based on the developments of JARUS group, established with EASA, to address the unmanned aviation operation issues. The proposed methodology integrates the SORA method provisions, developed by JARUS, and comprised into seven documents, into the unified logically related system with consideration to the specific traits of the Russian Federation Aviation legislation and the terminology adopted in the Russian Federation civil aviation. The key problem of assessing the expected effectiveness of risk management actions in the JARUS methodological guidelines does not have a complete solution.The article proposes to solve the problem using professional evaluation by means of the hierarchy analysis method of the fuzzy set theory. This allows us to reasonably build the hierarchy of actions according to their impact on risk mitigation and to classify them into three categories. Such a classification is imperative to evaluate the applicability of actions depending on the amount of total risk. Although the UAS operation of category B is supposed to be performed in the segregated airspace, the methodology takes into consideration not only the risks of collision with objects on the ground but also mid-air collision risks with manned aircraft, since it is usually impractical to create the “ideal” segregated airspace. The proposed methodology can be utilized in the long view when developing risk management practices of UAS operation of category C in open skies.

Risk-Based Method for Determining Separation Minima in Unmanned Aircraft Systems

Risk assessment is a key issue in enabling the use of unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) in nonsegregated areas, especially in very low-level airspace and urban areas. The specific operations risk assessment (SORA) methodology represents an important milestone in performing the risk assessments required by aviation safety agencies to UAS operators in specific operations. However, the SORA is a qualitative method used for UASs operating inside a well-bounded operational volume. This paper proposes a quantitative method that can not only be used in a closed volume but also in an airspace shared by several UAS missions and even general aviation. The basis for this is providing a separation volume (a “bubble”) to prevent collisions that is calculated using a risk-based approach. The method consists of setting a target level of safety, which is accomplished using a tradeoff between strategic and tactical mitigations. A probabilistic methodology for performing quantitative risk assessment of strategic and tactical mitigations is provided, and the dependence of the separation distance is carefully analyzed. All factors affecting the separation distance are identified, and their contributions to collision risk are probabilistically estimated. The method takes into account specific factors relating to UASs such as trajectories, separation methods, and performance. As a result, the method allows numerical determination of a separation distance for a given target level of safety and an operational scenario.