ABSTRACT Developing second language (L2) reading skills is a core competency for university students who typically enter higher education with varied L2 proficiency and reading abilities. This study examined the effect of summarizing strategy on Iranian mechanical engineering students’ reading skills. Adopting a quasi-experimental design, the experimental group wrote eight summaries of the texts they had read over an academic year while the control group did conventional post-reading activities. Pre- and post-treatment reading comprehension results revealed that students who received summary training/practice significantly outperformed the control group. Analysis of the progress that each individual made further showed that summarizing benefited all the students practicing summarizing regardless of their initial reading skills and language proficiency. These findings might help teachers seeking ways to develop reading comprehension among non-English-major university students.

ABSTRACT The current study examines the barriers faced by university students and investigates how patterns of these challenges are associated with student resilience. Using data collected from a sample of 281 university students, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), profile analysis, and logistic regression were utilized to identify distinct profiles based on the intensity and type of challenges encountered and then examine their relationship with resilience. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses identified five core barrier factors, academic pressures, psychological distress, social and interpersonal challenges, environmental and financial constraints, and institutional or structural barriers. From the five barrier factors extracted from the data, two primary profiles emerged: a subgroup that experienced fewer barriers and a subgroup that experienced relatively more barriers. Students in the more barriers group reported significantly greater difficulties across academic, psychological, social, and environmental domains. Lower resilience scores were strongly associated with membership in the more barriers profile. Additionally, undergraduate and international students were more likely to belong to the more barriers group, even when accounting for resilience levels. These results suggest that while resilience is crucial, it may not fully mitigate the challenges faced by specific student populations. The study provides further support for targeted institutional support, particularly for international students, to address the diverse barriers impacting student success and well-being.

Algorithmic thinking refers to students’ abilities and skills in understanding problems, formulating strategies, and creating algorithms. This study explores the integration of large language model-driven AI programming assistants into the cultivation of university students’ algorithmic thinking, and examines the effect of AI assistants on university students’ algorithmic thinking and self-efficacy. The results indicate that AI assistants, equipped with functions such as timely feedback, personalized support, emotional companionship, and cognitive scaffolding, exert a significantly positive effect on students’ algorithmic thinking and self-efficacy. This effect shows no differences across genders or learning styles. While AI assistants demonstrated clear advantages in areas such as real-time feedback, problem diagnosis, and generating diverse solutions, students perceived that teachers retained a crucial and complementary role in guiding goals and values, constructing knowledge frameworks, providing emotional support, and offering holistic learning guidance. Based on these perceptions, we propose that teachers and AI assistants can collaborate to form a collaborative model for cultivating algorithmic thinking. This study provides practical guidance for applying AI assistants in programming or algorithm courses to enhance students’ algorithmic thinking, and offers valuable insights for designing human-machine collaborative teaching methods and optimizing AI assistants.

Purpose: This study investigated the lived experiences of homelessness and insecurity among displaced university students in Nigeria. These students face significant challenges, including limited access to basic necessities such as food, water, and shelter, which adversely affect their academic performance as well as their physical and mental well-being. Experiences of stigma, anxiety, and uncertainty further hinder their ability to concentrate on studies and achieve academic goals. The study addressed two research questions and tested two null hypotheses. Methodology: The study employed a mixed-methods design, integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The population included all displaced university students in Nigeria, with a sample size of 1,000 participants. A simple random technique was used to select 3 universities and stratified sampling technique was used to select participants. Data were collected using a self-structured instrument, the Lived Experiences of Homelessness and Insecurity among Displaced University Students Questionnaire (LEHIDUSQ), which consists of two sections: Part A (personal information) and Part B (research questions). Items were rated on a four-point Likert scale: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). Additionally, 15 participants were interviewed. The instrument was administered by the researcher and two research assistants, all of whom were familiar with the study area and adhered to ethical standards. Data collection utilized online platforms such as Google Forms and Microsoft Forms. Simple percentages, mean scores, and standard deviations were used to address the research questions. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Statistic tested the hypotheses at the 0.05 significance level, and thematic analysis was conducted using Nvivo. Findings: The findings indicate that homelessness and insecurity among displaced university students in Nigeria present significant challenges that undermine academic achievement, physical and mental health, and overall well-being. These results highlight the urgent need for targeted interventions and support systems to address these issues and promote students’ academic success and well-being. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study highlights the struggles students face as a result insecurities, displacement forces many university students to abandon or interrupt studies, leading to dropout risks, delayed graduation, loss of academic progress, and long-term barriers to completing higher education. Insecurity closes campuses or makes commuting unsafe, while homelessness compounds this by removing stable environments for studying. Displaced students face ongoing physical threats, psychological trauma and existential insecurity. This extends beyond physical homelessness to include lack of shelter, food, or basic needs, heightening risks of exploitation, gender-based violence (especially for female students), or mental health deterioration.

Purpose This study aims to examine whether anger, anxiety and psychological well-being predict psychopathic personality among a non-clinical sample of university students in Jordan. Design/methodology/approach A descriptive-correlational design was used. Convenience sampling recruited 643 students from Jordanian universities. Data were collected on primary and secondary psychopathy, anger, generalized anxiety and psychological well-being and analyzed using SPSS. Findings Overall, 0.5% of the students (n = 3) were at high risk for primary psychopathy, and 1.6% (n = 10) were at very high risk for secondary psychopathy. The regression model including anger, anxiety and well-being explained 19.0% (R² = 0.19) of the variance in primary psychopathy and was significant (F7, 642 = 20.82, p < 0.001). Academic year (B = –0.503, p < 0.001), generalized anxiety (B = 0.117, p = 0.003) and anger (B = 0.317, p < 0.001) significantly predicted primary psychopathy. The same model explained 8.1% (R² = 0.081) of the variance in secondary psychopathy and was significant (F7, 642 = 7.98, p < 0.001). Academic year (B = –0.33, p = 0.0001), sex (B = 0.75, p = 0.013) and anger (B = 0.13, p < 0.001) significantly predicted secondary psychopathy. Practical implications Mental health counselors should attend to elevated anger, higher anxiety and diminished well-being as potential indicators of psychopathic traits in students and incorporate screening and targeted interventions within university counseling services. Originality/value This study addresses psychopathic personality as a largely hidden disturbance in university populations and demonstrates that it can be indicated through readily assessed psychological factors such as anger and anxiety.

This meta-analysis aims to determine the clinical manifestations, prevalence, and risk factors of asthenopia across diverse populations. We systematically searched PubMed up to April 2024 for studies published within the last five years on asthenopia, without language or design restrictions. Reference lists were also reviewed. The study quality was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to calculate proportions, prevalence rates, odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Overall, 63 studies were included. The pooled prevalence of asthenopia detected via questionnaires or symptom report was 51% (95% CI = 50%, 52%). Subgroup analyses showed high prevalence among digital device users (90%) and computer workers (77%). During the COVID-19 pandemic, prevalence rose among adults (39%-45%), university students (36%-57%), and school-aged children (45%-64%). The most frequent ocular symptoms were eye tiredness (65%, 95% CI = 46%, 84%), eye strain (47%, 95% CI = 37%, 58%), and burning/irritation (43%, 95% CI = 35%, 51%). Musculoskeletal symptoms, including neck pain (45%, 95% CI = 28%, 62%) and shoulder pain (30%, 95% CI = 12%, 48%) were also prevalent. Neuropsychological symptoms included headache (50%, 95% CI = 41%, 59%) and difficulty concentrating (44%, 95% CI = 32%, 56%). Risk factors included short sleep duration (OR = 1.28; 95% CI = 1.04, 1.57), prior eye disease (OR = 2.59; 95% CI = 1.43, 4.69), prolonged screen time (OR = 1.15; 95% CI = 1.09, 1.21), and ambient conditions like air conditioning use (OR = 23.02; 95% CI = 4.94, 107.18). Protective measures included anti-glare filters (OR = 0.34; 95% CI = 0.19, 0.64), regular breaks (OR = 0.21; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.51), and computer use knowledge (OR = 0.20; 95% CI = 0.13, 0.30). Asthenopia is prevalent across diverse populations, characterised by a wide range of symptoms and influenced by modifiable risk factors. Our findings support a unified definition to improve clinical recognition and offer preliminary evidence to help shape future research on preventive strategies. PROSPERO: CRD42024536841.

Introduction Metabolic health is closely related to physical activity, and different types of motor skills may induce distinct physiological responses. To investigate the differences in energy expenditure and substrate metabolic characteristics between university students engaged in closed motor skills and open motor skills physical education classes, and to provide exercise prescription and theoretical reference for metabolic health promotion. Methods Thirty-six male university students ( n = 36, year = 20.83 ± 1.98) were recruited and asked to perform sequential open motor skills exercise (cricket practice, time = 40 min) and closed motor skills exercise (closed motor skills, time = 40 min) during university physical education classes. Resting energy expenditure (REE), exercise energy expenditure (EEE), energy expenditure rate (EER), respiratory quotient (RQ), fat energy supply rate (FESR), fat energy supply proportion (FESP), fat oxidation amount (FOA), fat oxidation rate (FOR), sugar energy supply rate (SESR), sugar energy supply proportion (SESP), sugar oxidation amount (SOA), sugar oxidation rate (SOR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and feeling scale (FS) was measured before exercise, during exercise in class, during a 3-h recovery period after class, and for 4 consecutive days after class. Results EEE, FOA, and FESP were significantly lower ( P < 0.01) for open motor skills but higher ( P < 0.01) for SESP than for closed motor skills during in-class practice. Within 3 h of recovery after class, EEE, FOA, FESP, and FS were significantly higher for open motor skills than for closed motor skills ( P < 0.05), but lower for SOA, SOA, SESP, and RPE than for closed motor skills ( P < 0.01). Within 4 consecutive days after training, the REE for open motor skills was higher than pre-training ( P < 0.05) on days 1 and 2, and higher than closed motor skills ( P < 0.05) on day 1. The RQ of open motor skills was lower than that of pre-exercise and closed motor skills on day 1 and day 2 after exercise ( P < 0.01, P < 0.05), whereas both REE and RQ of closed motor skills were not significantly different from pre-exercise at 4 days. Conclusion (1) Open and closed motor skills have similar effects in promoting lipid and glucose metabolism, but open motor skills have a higher perception of exercise experience. (2) During exercise, open motor skills are more dependent on glucose supply than closed motor skills. However, during the recovery period, open motor skills are more fat-fueled and glycogen is more likely to be resynthesized to replenish depleted glycogen during exercise. (3) Open motor skills are superior to closed motor skills in increasing resting metabolic levels and fat metabolism efficiency.

Digital transformation is driving changes in marketing strategies, particularly through the use of visual content marketing and electronic word of mouth (e-WOM) in shaping consumer perceptions. In the context of online jasa titip services, visual content and consumer reviews are crucial factors in building perceived quality, which subsequently influences intention to recommend. This study aimed to analyze the effect of visual content marketing and e-WOM on perceived quality and its impact on intention to recommend among users of the @syazaofficial jasa titip service among university students in Semarang City. The study employed a quantitative approach with a correlational research design, with data collected through an online questionnaire administered to 100 respondents selected using purposive sampling. Data were analyzed using the Partial Least Square–Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) method. The results showed that visual content marketing and e-WOM had a positive and significant effect on perceived quality. In addition, perceived quality was found to have a positive effect on intention to recommend and to function as a mediating variable in the relationship between visual content marketing and e-WOM and intention to recommend. These findings underscore the importance of managing engaging visual content and fostering positive e-WOM to enhance perceived quality and encourage consumers to provide recommendations. The practical implications of this study offer guidance for jasa titip service providers in designing effective digital marketing strategies based on visual content and consumer interactions.

Mindful eating serves as a therapeutic intervention for recognizing and gradually altering the established daily eating habits and patterns. This study aims to estimate the prevalence of adoption of principles of mindful eating among medical and non-medical university students and to detect the effect of adoption of mindful eating on the Body Mass Index of the studied subjects. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 576 undergraduate students using a structured self-administered questionnaire comprising sociodemographic data, perceived weight and height and Mindful Eating Questionnaire. The majority of the studied students (94.4%) were used to adopt Mindful eating. The percentages of medical and non-medical students were used to adopt Mindful eating were (97.6% and 91.3%, respectively). A statistically significant association was detected between the type of the study (faculty) and adoption of mindful eating (P-value = 0.001). Medical study permits adopting mindful eating by about 73.8% more than non-medical studies. Medical male students showed higher scores for the disinhibition subscale than females (P-value = 0.025) while non-medical female students showed higher scores for the awareness subscale than males (P-value = 0.006). Nearly three fourths of the studied subjects (74.3%) had Body Mass Index ≥ 25. The percentage of medical students (17.4%) having Body Mass Index ≥ 25 was less than the percentage of their non-medical peers (34.0%). The association between the type of the study (faculty) and Body Mass Index categories was statistically significant (P-value = < 0.001). The higher scores on the Mindful Eating Questionnaire overall and on each of the categories except the awareness score had been associated with lower Body Mass Index. Most of the students adopting Mindful eating (75.4%) had Body Mass Index < 25 as compared to their peers who did not adopt Mindful eating where more than one third of them (43.8%) had Body Mass Index ≥ 25. The association between Mindful eating summary score categories and Body Mass Index categories was statistically significant (P-value = 0.016). A significant negative weak correlation was detected between Mindful eating summary score categories and Body Mass Index categories (P-value = 0.044). Academic background reinforces the potential of mindful eating as a viable strategy for promoting healthier eating habits and effective weight management among university students.

This study aims to explore the role of the social media platform TikTok in improving the English skills of Vietnamese university students. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey completed by 105 student participants from universities across Vietnam, from the north to the south of the country. The study focused on students’ perceptions of TikTok's role in enhancing their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, as well as its influence on their motivation and confidence in using English for daily communication. The results showed that most students considered TikTok an effective platform for improving their English, with the greatest improvements reported in speaking and listening skills. In addition, students’ motivation and confidence in using English were significantly increased after using TikTok to practice. Findings suggest that social media platforms such as TikTok can support formal English language education and enhance learner engagement outside traditional classrooms.

Background: The rapid diffusion of generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) in higher education is reshaping students’ learning practices and raising concerns about unequal access and educational equity. In the Italian university context, where institutional guidelines on AI use are still developing, examining how students adopt and perceive tools such as ChatGPT is particularly relevant. Methods: This quantitative study investigated patterns of ChatGPT use and perceptions among Italian university students, with specific attention to its perceived support for learning and the development of transversal skills. Data were collected through an online survey. Differences across socio-demographic and academic characteristics were analysed using Mann–Whitney and Kruskal–Wallis tests, while associations between ChatGPT use, students’ perceptions, and study-related outcomes were examined using Spearman’s rho coefficients. Results: Students perceived ChatGPT as a useful tool, particularly in supporting the development of analytical, writing, and digital skills. Significant differences emerged across student groups. Higher levels of use and more positive perceptions were reported by freshmen, students studying in urban areas, and those with stronger economic resources. Conclusions: ChatGPT adoption and subjectively perceived institutional support and benefits vary by academic experience and socio-economic background. As the findings are based on self-reported perceptions, they reflect perceived rather than measured learning outcomes, highlighting the need for further research using objective indicators.

Despite increased integration of technology in language education, many EFL learners in Thailand continue to struggle with spoken English proficiency. Traditional instruction often lacks sufficient support for real-time speech development, and limited research has explored the use of AI-supported reading tools to address this gap. This study aimed to examine whether the use of Reading Assistant (RA) software enhances speaking fluency, grammatical accuracy, and narrative structure quality among Thai university students. A quantitative research approach was employed, involving 104 undergraduate EFL students over a 15-week intervention period. Pre-and post-tests assessed fluency (e.g., speech rate, word count), accuracy (error-free clauses), and narrative quality (coherence, sequencing, detail). Correlational analysis explored the relationship between RA software engagement and language development. Students demonstrated significant improvements in fluency and a reduction in disfluencies after sustained use of RA software. Engagement with the software was positively correlated with improvements in both fluency and grammatical accuracy. An enhanced narrative structure was also observed, particularly in terms of coherence and relevance to the visual prompts. These findings support the value of AI-supported reading tools in developing oral language skills and underscore the need for broader institutional support to ensure equitable access.

Aims: This research aimed to examine the link between Chinese undergraduates' mobile-assisted English learning, English learning adaptability, individual differences, and self-management learning. Study Design: Guided by Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this research examined the link between Chinese undergraduates’ mobile-assisted English learning, learning adaptability, individual differences (e.g., intrinsic value), and self-management learning. A cross-sectional study design was employed, utilizing an online questionnaire to collect data from a sample of Chinese undergraduates. Methodology: An online questionnaire was administered to 415 students. The collected data were then analyzed using SPSS and AMOS software. Results: There was a positive correlation among intrinsic value, self-management learning, mobile-assisted language learning, and learning adaptability. Intrinsic value had both direct and indirect positive influences on learning adaptability. Self-management learning and mobile-assisted language learning partially mediated this relationship. There were differences in intrinsic value, self-management learning, mobile-assisted language learning, and learning adaptability based on gender, academic year, or disciplinary differences. Specifically, female learners had higher intrinsic value and performed better than male learners in mobile-assisted language learning, self-management learning, and learning adaptability. First-year university students outperformed second-year students in mobile-assisted language learning, self-management learning, and adaptability. Liberal arts students exhibited higher intrinsic value than their science and engineering counterparts. Conclusion: The study reveals significant relationships and differences among mobile-assisted English learning, learning adaptability, intrinsic value, and self-management learning among Chinese undergraduates. These findings suggest that educators could design gender-sensitive, year-specific, and discipline-tailored interventions—such as fostering intrinsic motivation through goal-setting or integrating mobile tools with metacognitive training to optimize EFL adaptability.

The university student period is of great importance as it is easier to exhibit risky behaviors such as unhealthy eating. The aim of this study is to assess the food literacy and eating disorders of university students to contribute to the planning of remedial interventions. This study was conducted with 813 students from Kütahya Health Sciences University, in 2022. Data were collected through a survey form. Factors associated with food literacy and eating disorders were demonstrated using chi-square tests and binary logistic regression analysis. Food literacy was found to be more inadequate/limited in men, younger individuals, those who perceive themselves as weak, those who do not prioritize healthy eating, those who consume less than five servings of fruits, vegetables, legumes, and grains (excluding potatoes and corn), and those who consume more than 50 grams of sugar daily. Eating disorders were more common among those who perceive themselves as overweight or normal weight, those who do not eat regularly, those who restrict their eating to stay thin or maintain an ideal weight, those with fast food habits, those whose food intake varies with emotions, and those with lower BMI and associate degree education. In order for university students, who are the future of the country, to acquire healthy eating habits, we think that planning remedial interventions such as the inclusion of healthy nutrition in educational curricula and various activities, regulations in the nutrition facilities of universities and dormitories, and in the amount of loans/scholarships given will have a positive effect.

Introduction: University students often describe their academic years as a period of continuous personal change, which may increase vulnerability to unhealthy lifestyle habits. These habits can influence body composition and are associated with both physical conditions (e.g., overweight, sedentary behavior) and psychological well-being, including suicide risk. Method: A quantitative, non-experimental, cross-sectional, descriptive–comparative–correlational design was employed, using a non-probabilistic intentional sample of 174 university students. Data were collected using the OMRON 514C body composition monitor, the Difficulties in Emotional Regulation Scale (DERS-E), and Plutchik’s Suicide Risk Scale. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests for gender comparisons, Pearson’s correlation analyses, and multiple linear regression analyses to examine whether the observed bivariate associations remained significant after controlling for gender. Results: Descriptive analyses showed variability in body composition, emotional dysregulation, and suicide risk. Gender comparisons indicated that men presented higher weight, height, skeletal muscle mass, visceral fat level, and basal metabolic rate, whereas women reported higher body fat percentage, greater emotional dysregulation, and higher suicide risk. Correlation analyses revealed that suicide risk was negatively associated with skeletal muscle mass (r = −0.24, p = 0.002), basal metabolic rate (r = −0.21, p = 0.006), height (r = −0.27, p &lt; 0.001), emotional rejection (r = −0.24, p = 0.001), and emotional confusion (r = −0.22, p = 0.004). Multiple regression analyses, controlling for gender, indicated that the associations between body composition indicators (skeletal muscle and basal metabolism) and suicide risk did not remain statistically significant (p &gt; 0.05). In contrast, emotional dysregulation dimensions, particularly emotional rejection, maintained significant associations with suicide risk after adjustment for gender. Additionally, negative associations were found between BMI and emotional dysregulation, and between height and emotional clarity, even after controlling for gender. Discussion: The findings highlight emotional dysregulation as a central and robust factor associated with suicide risk in university students, whereas body composition indicators appear to play a more limited and gender-dependent role. The fact that associations between physical markers (skeletal muscle, basal metabolism) and suicide risk were mediated by gender underscores the importance of considering sociodemographic factors when interpreting body–mental health relationships. These results support the need for integrated biopsychosocial prevention strategies that address emotional regulation within the university context, while considering the differential impact of gender on both physical and psychological risk factors.

Despite the increasing adoption of desktop virtual reality (VR) in higher education, the specific instructional efficacy of 3D interactive prompts remains inadequately understood. This study examines how such prompts—specifically dynamic spatial annotations and 3D animated demonstrations—influence learning outcomes within a desktop virtual learning environment (DVLE). Employing a quasi-experimental design integrated with eye-tracking and multimodal learning analytics, university students were assigned to either an experimental group (DVLE with 3D prompts) or a control group (basic DVLE) while completing physics tasks. Data collection encompassed eye-tracking metrics (fixation heatmaps, pupil diameter and dwell time), post-test performance (assessing knowledge comprehension and spatial problem-solving), and cognitive load ratings. Results indicated that the experimental group achieved significantly superior learning outcomes, particularly in spatial understanding and dynamic reasoning, alongside optimized visual attention patterns—characterized by shorter initial fixation latency and prolonged fixation on key 3D elements—and reduced cognitive load. Eye-tracking metrics were positively correlated with post-test scores, confirming that 3D prompts enhance learning by improving spatial attention guidance. These findings demonstrate that embedding 3D interactive prompts in DVLEs effectively directs visual attention, alleviates cognitive burden, and improves learning efficiency, offering valuable implications for the design of immersive educational settings.

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine the multidimensional effects of AI-based feedback in learner-centered and collaborative learning environments among university students. The study employed a five-group experimental design: two individual learning groups receiving either AI-based feedback(G1) or human expert feedback(G2), two collaborative learning groups receiving either AI(G3) or human expert feedback(G4), and control group(G5). According to the research results, G4 showed the highest level of development in the areas of creative problem solving, internal-external motivation, and critical thinking. G1 was the group with the highest performance, particularly in terms of system interaction, completed activities, and assignments. In contrast, G2 showed the lowest results in terms of both cognitive development and learning analytics. AI-based feedback in collaborative learning environments provided the highest development in cognitive skills, while AI-based in individual work was more effective in increasing system participation. Factorial MANCOVA indicated significant interactions between learning environment and feedback type on posttest outcomes, with strongest effects on self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and flexibility. These results show that AI-based feedback has different effects in both individual and collaborative learning contexts. Qualitative thematic analysis highlighted themes of cognitive facilitation, creativity enhancement, feedback quality perceptions, and environment preferences.

Foot arch morphology and lower-limb biomechanical characteristics in university students: a cross-sectional multifactorial analysis of 1,078 participants.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly deployed in English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) education, offering adaptive feedback, automated evaluation, and personalized learning pathways. However, existing research overwhelmingly emphasizes AI adoption and performance benefits, while largely overlooking what happens when AI systems fail to meet learner expectations and how learners recover from such failures. As a result, the cognitive–affective processes through which expectation violations translate into disengagement—or are mitigated through recovery—remain under-theorized and empirically unexplored. Addressing this gap, this study proposes and tests a cognitive–affective recovery model of learner engagement in AI-supported EFL contexts. Drawing on Expectation Violation Theory (EVT), Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT), and Digital Divide/Resilience Theory, the model explains how expectation violations influence engagement and how cognitive reappraisal and trust recovery mediate this relationship, while digital grit conditions learners’ ability to persist following setbacks. A two-wave survey of 298 Chinese EFL learners from urban and rural settings, including both university students and private institute learners, was analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Results show that expectation violations significantly reduce learner engagement, but perceived AI adaptivity narrows the adaptation gap and activates recovery processes. Cognitive reappraisal and trust recovery emerged as key mediating mechanisms, while digital grit moderated critical pathways by sustaining engagement under adverse conditions. By shifting the focus from AI success narratives to failure-and-recovery dynamics, this study advances theory on AI–learner interaction and offers practical guidance for designing resilient, trust-sensitive, and equity-oriented AI systems in language education.

This study investigated relationships between neurobiologically determined temperament dimensions, as defined by Dr. Helen E. Fisher (Fisher Temperament Inventory, Fisher et al., 2015), and interpersonal orientations operationalized through autonomy and sociotropy (Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale, Beck et al., 1983). The main goal of the research was to expand our understanding of how neurobiological predispositions may manifest in distinct interpersonal and self-oriented psychological traits. We employed a cross-sectional non-experimental quantitative design. The final sample consisted of 161 full-time university students (80.7% female), with a mean age of 20.27 years (range: 18–24 years). Our findings revealed several significant relationships between the studied variables. The strongest relationship was found between the Negotiator temperament (estrogen-oxytocin) and Sociotropy, followed by Director (testosterone) and Sociotropy, Director and Autonomy, Explorer (dopamine) and Autonomy and Explorer. Director and Explorer temperaments collectively accounted for 13.3% of the variance in Autonomy, while the model incorporating Negotiator and Director (inverse) explained 27.1% of the variance in Sociotropy. Cluster analysis revealed two distinct clusters: the "Sociotropic Negotiator profile" and "Autonomous Director/Explorer profile." Additionally, women scored significantly higher in Sociotropy compared to men, with a large effect size. These findings align with previous empirical evidence on personality dimensions and their connection to Autonomy and Sociotropy. This investigation represents a preliminary attempt to explore these relationships through a neurobiological lens, specifically linking the testosterone-related dimension (Director) to Autonomy and the estrogen-oxytocin type (Negotiator) to Sociotropy.