College Athletic Programs Research Articles

New Amateurism

This Article proposes a new model for the legal and economic relationship between college athletes and their schools. The National Collegiate Athletic Association and its member conferences and schools are besieged with legal challenges over rules that restrain the capacity of athletes to earn compensation for their athletic labor and the commercial value of their identities. The legal challenges are extensive and scrutinize membership rules under labor, employment, and antitrust laws. The days of “amateurism” and the “student-athlete” enjoying judicial and administrative deference are over. For college sports to maintain a character distinct from professional leagues, university athletic programs that feature de facto pro teams and those that rely on students who play a sport should be formally separated.

Recovery After Sport-Related Concussion in Collegiate Athletes With Self-Reported Pre-Injury Migraines.

Pre-injury migraines might be a risk factor for prolonged recovery after sport-related concussion (SRC). We sought to examine whether a pre-injury history of migraines is associated with worse recovery following SRC in collegiate athletes. Data were collected through a prospective concussion surveillance system in 11 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III college athletic programs between September 2014 and March 2020. Our primary independent variable, pre-injury migraines, were self-reported by the athletes. Between those with and without migraines, the outcomes of days to return-to-learn (RTL) without academic accommodations and return-to-play (RTP) were compared using Mann-Whitney U tests. Each athlete's RTL and RTP status was dichotomized (i.e., returned vs. not returned) at various time points for RTL (i.e., 7/14/21/28 days) and RTP (i.e., 14/21/28/56 days). Chi-squared tests were performed to compare the proportions of RTL and RTP status between groups. Multivariable regressions analyzed potential predictors of RTL and RTP adjusting for age, gender, prior concussions, other health conditions, and symptom severity. Of 1409 athletes with an SRC, 111 (7.9%) had a pre-injury history of migraines. Compared with those without migraines, those with migraines had longer median (interquartile range [IQR]) days to RTL (migraines = 7.0 [3.0-12.3] vs. no migraines = 5.0 [2.0-10.0], U = 53,590.5, p = 0.022). No differences were found in RTP between the two groups (migraines = 16.0 [10.0-33.0] vs. nχo migraines 15.0 [11.0-23.0], U = 38,545.0, p = 0.408). Regarding RTL, significantly lower proportions of athletes in the migraine group had fully RTL, without accommodations, at ≤14 days (77.5% vs. 85.2%, χ2 = 4.33, p = 0.037), ≤21 days (85.3% vs. 93.0%, χ2 = 7.99, p = 0.005), and ≤28 days (88.2% vs. 95.6%, χ2 = 10.60, p = 0.001). Regarding RTP, a significantly lower proportion of athletes in the migraine group RTP at ≤28 days (72.0% vs. 82.7%, χ2 = 5.40, p = 0.020) and ≤56 days (84.0% vs. 93.0%, χ2 = 8.19, p = 0.004). In a multivariable model predicting RTL that was adjusted for age, gender, acute concussion symptoms, and other health variables (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], history of mental health difficulties), pre-injury history of migraine was associated with longer RTL (β = 0.06, p = 0.030). In a multivariable model predicting RTP, pre-injury history of migraine was not associated with RTP (β = 0.04, p = 0.192). In collegiate athletes, pre-injury migraine history was independently associated with longer RTL but not RTP. When comparing the proportions of those with successful RTP by days, significantly lower proportions of those with migraines showed successful RTP at ≤28 days and ≤56 days. Futures studies should study the generalizability of our findings in other school levels.

Mental Health Education and Self-Reported Depressive Symptoms Among College Athletes

Depression among college athletes is a subject of growing research interest. The time demands and performance-related pressures college athletes face increase the risk for possible mental health diagnoses. It is recommended college athletes receive training on mental health issues to learn about symptoms or identify early warning signs. This study investigated whether receiving or not receiving pre-sport mental health education influenced reported depressive symptoms of National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) college athletes. This quantitative, cross-sectional study included voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old (n = 361). Most participants (n = 229, 63.7%) indicated they did not receive mental health training from their college or university prior to sport participation. A web-based instrument that consisted of a demographic questionnaire and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) was used to identify college athletes who reported depressive symptoms. College athletes who did not receive pre-sport mental health training scored in a higher category of depression symptoms than college athletes who did receive mental health training. It is recommended college athletic programs explore the importance of mental health training sessions to prepare student-athletes to recognize and respond promptly and appropriately to mental health challenges.
 Keywords: mental health literacy, college athletes, depression, NAIA

A-33 Examining Acute Symptoms after Sport-Related Concussion in Collegiate Athletes with Pre-Injury Migraines

Abstract Purpose To examine whether a personal history of migraines is associated with worse acute symptom burden following sport-related concussion (SRC) in collegiate athletes. Methods Data were collected through a prospective concussion surveillance system in 11 NCAA Division III college athletic programs between September 2014 and January 2023. Mann-Whitney U tests compared total Post Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS) score and individual symptom scores (taken within 3 days of injury) between collegiate athletes with and without pre-injury migraines. Chi-squared tests were used to compare proportions of athletes endorsing individual symptoms (i.e., item score ≥1) between the two groups. Multivariable regression analyzed potential predictors of PCSS scores. Results Of 1,190 athletes with an SRC, 93 (7.8%) had a pre-injury history of migraines. No significant difference in total PCSS scores were found between athletes with and without pre-injury migraines (22.0±16.4 vs. 20.5±15.8; U=48719, p=.47). Athletes with pre-injury migraines reported greater “sensitivity to light” (1.59±1.59 vs. 1.23±1.41; p=.04) and “feeing more emotional” (0.91±1.27 vs. 0.70±1.30; p=.008). Athletes with migraine histories were more likely to endorse “feeing more emotional” (45.2% vs. 29.5%; p=.002). No differences were found across all other symptoms. In a multivariable model, history of migraine was not a significant predictor of acute PCSS scores, but those with a history of depression (β=0.12, p<.001) and longer days to symptom evaluation since injury (β=0.08, p=.005) had higher PCSS scores. Conclusions Collegiate athletes with a pre-existing history of migraines did not have higher acute symptom burden following SRC. Future studies should investigate whether migraine history is associated with recovery time.

When push comes to shove: How coach versus student athlete misconduct affects event attendance intentions

Though onand off-the-field misconduct is common among U.S. college athletic programs, little is known regarding the ramifications that may result. Drawing on social learning theory, the current research suggests consumers intentions (e.g., likelihood of attending a game) differ depending on violator's team role. Across one qualitative and five experimental studies, we demonstrate that consumers' intentions are influenced by violator's team role, such that likelihood of attending a game is lower when a coach (vs. student athlete) misbehaves, an effect driven by evaluation of the academic institution. This effect is robust across both winning and losing records and moderated by perceived fairness of the university's actions toward the violator.

Character Development in Intercollegiate Athletics: A Phenomenological Investigation of NCAA Division III and NAIA Head Coaches

The extent to which sports build character is an increasingly contested topic, and scholarship has recently been focused on how coaches may (or may not) facilitate character development in their programs. Although existing literature examines coaches in youth sport and “big-time” college athletic programs, research on coaches in smaller programs (i.e., NCAA Division III and NAIA) remains scant. This phenomenological study seeks to better understand what character development means to coaches in this context. Implications of findings for small college athletic programs are discussed.

Heartland (2007–2021 and ongoing)

<i>Heartland</i> (2007–2021 and ongoing)

University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) In-house Covid-19 Testing Program

The pandemic caused by the spread of the virus SARS-CoV-2 threatened to severely disrupt the activities of student-athletes. In order to provide a safe environment for athletic competition, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) mandated testing of student-athletes. The goal was to rapidly identify student-athletes and the athletic staff member who either tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 or were in contact with individuals who tested positive. Rapid identification of infected individuals and their contacts allowed the University to implement quarantine standards and quarantine facilities quickly as needed. The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) developed an in-house testing program and was quickly able to meet the NCAA requirements, allowing UTA to continue its athletic participation with minimal forfeiture of scheduled games. The purpose of this paper is to report the implementation UTA's COVID prevention program for the university's athletic program. This program may provide valuable information to other universities' planning for the management of COVID prevention in their athletic programs. Challenges and solutions are identified.

Student-Athletes', Coaches', and Administrators' Perspectives of Sexual Violence Prevention on Three Campuses with National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I and II Athletic Programs.

Research has found associations between intercollegiate athletics and risk for sexual violence, and that sexual violence is more pervasive at colleges and universities with National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic programs, relative to NCAA Division II, NCAA Division III and no athletic programs. Simultaneously, sports involvement is linked with prosocial values and there are documented developmental benefits of sports participation. College athletic programs hold promise for fostering sexual violence prevention but there is limited knowledge about how student-athletes conceptualize sexual violence and how athletes, coaches, and administrators perceive available prevention and response programs. We conducted seven Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 21 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) with student-athletes, athletic directors, and coaches from public university Division I (n = 2) and Division II (n = 1) campuses. We assessed perceptions of sexual violence, knowledge and opinions of available prevention and response programs, and sought input on how to bridge gaps in campus sexual violence policies. Student-athletes associated sexual violence with alcohol in their relationships with peers and asymmetrical power dynamics in relationships with coaches and faculty. Athletes felt strong connections with teammates and sports programs but isolated from the larger campus. This created barriers to students' use of services and the likelihood of reporting sexual violence. Athletes felt the mandatory sexual violence prevention training, including additional NCAA components, were ineffective and offered to protect the university and its athletic programs from legal complications or cultural ridicule. Athletic staff were aware of policies and programs for reporting and referring sexual violence cases but their knowledge on how these served students was limited. Student-athletes were uncomfortable disclosing information regarding relationships and sexual violence to coaches and preferred peer-led prevention approaches.

College Athletic Programs Thwart the Spread of SARS-CoV-2 During the COVID-19 Pandemic

College Athletic Programs Thwart the Spread of SARS-CoV-2 During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Efficiency Analytics of NCAA Division I College Football Programs

College athletics are a multi-billion dollar industry in the United States, but how well do university athletic programs employ their resources? The question is germane in light of increasing costs of higher education and scrutiny of university budgets. This study furnishes a template to weigh the tradeoffs inherent in collegiate sports, which is the main contribution of the paper. A dataset of 117 American college football programs from 2011-2015 is analyzed using DEA and AHP methods to assess the efficiency and perception of these programs. The result is the aforementioned framework measuring the programs' success and answers the question of program efficiency.

Addressing sexual violence and misconduct in college athletics: An alternate model of investigation and resolution

ABSTRACT Increases in sexual misconduct charges brought against college athletes and athletic programs have created a public relations crisis for the NCAA. Lack of timeliness, proper reporting, investigation, and appropriate resolution of sexual assault incidents has created negative public perceptions of college athletics and, more importantly, likely failed to properly meet the standards of gender equality in higher education. The NCAA does not possess the legal authority to bring criminal charges or levy punishments for crimes. Yet, it does possess the financial means to address these issues. An Independent Accountability Administration is proposed. This third-party entity would improve the NCAA's processes in resolving these issues by authorizing with the responsibility and power to effectively handle claims of sexual violence and harassment involving college athletes from inception to resolution, as well as foster a more appropriate culture of gender equality by emphasizing prevention education while also allowing for due process.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Transmission in Intercollegiate Athletics Not Fully Mitigated With Daily Antigen Testing.

BackgroundHigh-frequency, rapid-turnaround severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) testing continues to be proposed as a way of efficiently identifying and mitigating transmission in congregate settings. However, 2 SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks occurred among intercollegiate university athletic programs during the fall 2020 semester, despite mandatory directly observed daily antigen testing.MethodsDuring the fall 2020 semester, athletes and staff in both programs were tested daily using Quidel’s Sofia SARS Antigen Fluorescent Immunoassay, with positive antigen results requiring confirmatory testing with real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. We used genomic sequencing to investigate transmission dynamics in these 2 outbreaks.ResultsIn the first outbreak, 32 confirmed cases occurred within a university athletics program after the index patient attended a meeting while infectious, despite a negative antigen test on the day of the meeting. Among isolates sequenced from that outbreak, 24 (92%) of 26 were closely related, suggesting sustained transmission following an initial introduction event. In the second outbreak, 12 confirmed cases occurred among athletes from 2 university programs that faced each other in an athletic competition, despite receipt of negative antigen test results on the day of the competition. Sequences from both teams were closely related and distinct from viruses circulating in the community for team 1, suggesting transmission during intercollegiate competition in the community for team 2.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that antigen testing alone, even when mandated and directly observed, may not be sufficient as an intervention to prevent SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks in congregate settings, and they highlight the importance of vaccination to prevent SARS-CoV-2 outbreak in congregate settings.

Medical Diagnoses in a University Athlete Training Room Clinic.

Approximately 560 000 student-athletes participate in university athletic programs every year. These athletes develop a variety of medical injuries and illnesses during their time at the university. There is currently a paucity of data with regarding medical encounters in a dedicated university athlete training room clinic. This study aims to provide data regarding medical diagnoses from a university athlete training room clinic. Descriptive epidemiology study. University athlete training room clinic. University athletes. The electronic medical record for a year-round, athlete-only training room clinic at a private US university was reviewed. Athlete age, sex, sport, date of medical encounter, and encounter diagnoses across 5 calendar years were recorded; medical diagnoses were then manually stratified into diagnostic categories and subgroups. A total of 1258 university athletes were evaluated during 5303 medical encounters. Approximately two-thirds of athletes were evaluated one or more times per year. Average number of encounters per athlete per year was 2.2 (0.6-3.8, 95% confidence interval). The football team accounted for the greatest number of encounters (15.2% of total encounters). The most common medical diagnosis category was otorhinolaryngology (30.6% of total diagnoses). The most common diagnosis subgroup was upper respiratory infection (14.8% of total diagnoses). Approximately two-thirds of athletes were evaluated annually with an average of 2 encounters per athlete per year. Upper respiratory infection represented the most common individual diagnosis. The results reported in this study may be useful in directing future care and research of university athletes.

Time from Start of Quarantine to SARS-CoV-2 Positive Test Among Quarantined College and University Athletes - 17 States, June-October 2020.

To safely resume sports, college and university athletic programs and regional athletic conferences created plans to mitigate transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Mitigation measures included physical distancing, universal masking, and maximizing outdoor activity during training; routine testing; 10-day isolation of persons with COVID-19; and 14-day quarantine of athletes identified as close contacts* of persons with confirmed COVID-19. Regional athletic conferences created testing and quarantine policies based on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) guidance (1); testing policies varied by conference, school, and sport. To improve compliance with quarantine and reduce the personal and economic burden of quarantine adherence, the quarantine period has been reduced in several countries from 14 days to as few as 5 days with testing (2) or 10 days without testing (3). Data on quarantined athletes participating in NCAA sports were used to characterize COVID-19 exposures and assess the amount of time between quarantine start and first positive SARS-CoV-2 test result. Despite the potential risk for transmission from frequent, close contact associated with athletic activities (4), more athletes reported exposure to COVID-19 at social gatherings (40.7%) and from roommates (31.7%) than they did from exposures associated with athletic activities (12.7%). Among 1,830 quarantined athletes, 458 (25%) received positive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test results during the 14-day quarantine, with a mean of 3.8 days from quarantine start (range=0-14 days) until the positive test result. Among athletes who had not received a positive test result by quarantine day 5, the probability of having a positive test result decreased from 27% after day 5 to <5% after day 10. These findings support new guidance from CDC (5) in which different options are provided to shorten quarantine for persons such as collegiate athletes, especially if doing so will increase compliance, balancing the reduced duration of quarantine against a small but nonzero risk for postquarantine transmission. Improved adherence to mitigation measures (e.g., universal masking, physical distancing, and hand hygiene) at all times could further reduce exposures to SARS-CoV-2 and disruptions to athletic activities because of infections and quarantine (1,6).

Civil Conspiracy—Holding College Officials Accountable

College sports have always been somewhat marred by controversy—whether it be point shaving, paying off players, or academic fraud—as the money to be made from college sports and the overwhelming desire to win has always seemed to generate impropriety among schools, players, and coaches. However, in recent years, scandals within college athletics programs have escalated beyond mere efforts to “win at all costs,” with the spotlight now on instances of sexual violence committed by players against other students and the cover-ups of these assaults. Following the massive cover-up and mishandling of sexual assaults by Baylor University’s athletic department and officials, and the arrest and conviction of a sexually abusive physician at Michigan State University (MSU), it has become apparent that these instances of intra-university collusion are not “isolated incidents.” Instead, these events are evidence of a pattern of behavior employed by institutions of higher education—institutions that prioritize their image over the safety of their students. Further, these cover-ups undoubtedly involve more actors than are held accountable, with scandals leading to the removal of university “faces,” while lower-level employees, staff, and coaches are retained despite their obvious involvement. This Comment will address the goings-on within college athletic programs and will argue that such catastrophic failures on the part of schools like Baylor and MSU are likely evidence of a conspiracy within those institutions to defraud their students or interfere with their civil rights, thereby jeopardizing the safety of every student enrolled. It will be a fact-intensive analysis of the tragic events at Baylor and MSU and of the lawsuits filed against both schools by victims. This analysis will show that a much greater evil is at play at these, and likely many other institutions. Not only did these universities fail to adhere to policy, protect their students, or act with any common sense or decency—they actively attempted to inhibit investigations and intentionally tried to cover up sexual harassment, sexual assault, and even gang rapes in order to protect their athletic programs, their employees’ jobs, and their schools’ reputations. Next, this Comment will discuss the shortcomings of Title IX, focusing on how the statute does little to provide an adequate remedy for the victims at Baylor and MSU. Additionally, the impotency of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sanctions will be analyzed, illustrating how those sanctions do little to encourage athletic officials to adhere to proper Title IX or university policy. Finally, this Comment argues that the pursuit of civil conspiracy claims against athletic programs and universities would: (1) deter schools from protecting alleged rapists in order to promote their athletic programs, and (2) root out and punish individuals responsible for willfully protecting students unequally or discouraging reporting of sexual assaults. Additionally, this Comment advocates for neutral government or academic agencies to handle these cases, thereby removing these kinds of investigations entirely from the hands of ill-equipped athletic programs and coaches.

Sex and Sport Differences in College Lacrosse and Soccer Head Impact Biomechanics

Sport-related head impact biomechanics research has been male-centric and focused primarily on American football and ice hockey, which do not address popular sports in which both sexes participate. The purpose of this study was to quantify college female and male lacrosse and soccer head impact biomechanics. Head impact biomechanics were collected from college lacrosse and soccer players across two Division 1 college athletic programs (96 female athletes, 141 male athletes; age, 19.8 ± 1.3 yr; height, 174.8 ± 9.2 cm; mass, 72.4 ± 11.7 kg). We deployed helmetless head impact measurement devices (X2 Biosystems xPatch) before each event. Peak linear and rotational accelerations were log-transformed for random intercepts general linear mixed models, and subsequently categorized based on impact magnitude for additional categorical analyses. Most linear (69.4%) and rotational (72.3%) head impact accelerations sustained by our study cohort were categorized as mild. On average, male athletes sustained impacts with higher linear accelerations than females (P = 0.04), and lacrosse athletes sustained higher linear acceleration impacts than soccer athletes (P = 0.023). Soccer athletes sustained significantly higher-magnitude impacts during competitions versus practices (linear, P < 0.001, rotational, P < 0.001), whereas lacrosse athletes sustained higher-magnitude impacts during practices versus competition (linear, P < 0.001; rotational, P < 0.001). Male athletes sustained higher accelerations in competitions versus practice (linear, P = 0.004; rotational, P < 0.001), whereas female athletes sustained higher accelerations in practice versus competitions (linear, P < 0.001; rotational, P = 0.02). There were no interactions between sex and sport on impact magnitude. Male athletes and lacrosse athletes experience higher-magnitude head impacts. Given the limited literature in this area, future research should continue characterizing head impact biomechanics in women's and nonhelmeted sports as well as validate nonhelmeted head impact technologies.

The Prevalence of Sickle Cell Trait in a Division I University Athletic Program

The Prevalence of Sickle Cell Trait in a Division I University Athletic Program

Interest in teaching, coaching, and careers in education: A survey of university student-athletes

This study seeks to gauge the interest of university student-athletes in careers in academic teaching, athletic coaching, and related fields that involve working with children, adolescents, or young adults. Findings revealed a significant, positive relationship between student-athletes’ interest in coaching and their interest in educational careers as well as a significant difference between races on interest in coaching with Black/African American student-athletes having the highest interest in coaching. Findings suggest that interest in athletic coaching could lead student-athletes to consider teaching or other educational careers. Implications include opportunities for collaboration between teacher education programs and university athletic programs.

Improving Concussion-Reporting Behavior in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Football Players: Evidence for the Applicability of the Socioecological Model for Athletic Trainers.

Few researchers have examined the views of important stakeholders in football student-athletes' spheres of influence and whether their views map well in a systems approach to understanding concussion-reporting behavior (CRB). To examine the extent to which stakeholders' beliefs about what influences football players' CRBs reflect system-level influences that go beyond individual-level factors. Qualitative study. Four National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I university athletic programs. A total of 26 individuals (athletic directors = 5, athletic trainers [ATs] = 10, football coaches = 11). Semistructured interviews with stakeholders were transcribed and analyzed using the socioecological model according to the Miles and Huberman coding methods. Stakeholders largely identified individual-level factors (attitudes), followed by exosystem-level factors (university policies and support for ATs), with fewer microsystem- and mesosystem-level factors (coach influence and communication between coaches and ATs, respectively) and almost no macrosystem-level factors (media influence, cultural norms about aggression and toughness in football). Promising evidence indicates growing stakeholder awareness of the importance of exosystem-level factors (eg, medical personnel and CRB policies) in influencing CRB rates. However, frontline stakeholders and policy makers may benefit from practices that bridge these influences (eg, coach involvement and communication), allowing for a more integrated approach to influence student-athletes' willingness to improve their CRBs.