Universal Conversion Research Articles

Toward Absolute Quantification of Soluble Proteins via Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Total Protein Concentration in Blood Plasma.

For absolute protein quantification using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, we considered proteins as homopolymers and effective amino acid (AA) residues (AAREff) as monomer units. For diverse classes of proteins, we determined the AAREff molecular weight as 111.5 ± 3.2 Da and the number of hydrogens per AA as 7.8 ± 0.2. Their ratio of 14.3 ± 0.3 (g/LP)/(mol/LH) remains constant across various protein classes and is equivalent to Kjeldahl's nitrogen-to-protein conversion constant of 5.78 ± 0.29 gN/gP. By analogy to the Kjeldahl method, we suggest that the total integral of a 1H NMR solution protein spectrum could be used for total protein quantification. We synthesized low-resolution protein spectra from the weighted sums of individual AA spectra and compared them with experimental spectra. In the methyl region, the ratio of the protein mass to the total number of protons in the synthetic spectra (corrected for the chemical shift mismatch) was ∼1 (mg/mL)/mM, which agrees with an earlier reported experimental ratio for urine (1.05 ± 0.06 (mg/mL)/mM). For human blood plasma, in the methyl region, we found empirical ratios of 1.115 ± 0.006 (mg/mL)/mM (using 96 patient samples) and 1.121 ± 0.011 (mg/mL)/mM for the NIST plasma standard. This numerical agreement points to universal conversion constants, i.e., protein mixtures with unknown compositions could be quantified without the need for calibration standards by measuring the millimolar proton concentration within the methyl region of the NMR spectrum using the same conversion constant.

A computer-aided feature-based encryption model with concealed access structure for medical Internet of Things

One of the Internet of Things (IoT) security issues is the secure sharing and granular management of data access. This study recommends a feature-based encryption scheme with a hidden access structure for medical IoT data security. While establishing fine-grained access control of ciphertext data, the system can guarantee clinical client data privacy. First, it is recommended to convert identity-based encryption (IBE) into a feature-based encryption model (FBEM) using a universal conversion technique that supports multi-valued attributes and gates. IBE characteristics could be inherited by the converted FBEM. The conversion method is then used to change the receiver anonymous IBE scheme into the FBEM scheme with concealed access structure. The FBEM model is then used to construct the IoT scenario for the smart medical application. Theoretical analysis and experimental findings reveal that the suggested system provides advantages over prominent systems regarding computing efficiency, storage load, and security when the access structure is disguised.

Preface

Innovative scientific methodologies and challenging projects marking future trends in the protection of culturalheritage have initiated through a holistic approach, by merging competence from the scientific fields ofarchitecture, civil engineering, surveying engineering, materials science and engineering, information technology,and archaeology, a universal conversation among scholars, heritage professionals on restoration andconservation, stakeholders, industry representatives, and policy makers. The combined utilization of digitaldocumentation technologies with innovative analytical and non-destructive techniques; numerical, computational;and 3D techniques; and archaeometric and archaeogene methods supports the development of a transdisciplinarymultispectral modeling methodology towards the sustainable preservation of cultural heritage.Innovation is enhancing and revealing a critical dimension of the preservation of cultural heritage along withsocial participation and communication.

Four-parameter electromagnetic method for determining the parameters of brewery effluents

of the article is to study a four-parameter electromagnetic method for joint measurements of electrical resistivity k, relative permittivity εr, temperature t and density ρ of samples of acidic, alkaline and average effluents from a microbrewery based on a magnetic flux probe (MFP), which considers the influence of informative parameters of beer effluents on the components of the amplitude and phase signals of a multiparameter device. The implementation of the four-parameter method is carried out on the basis of the dependences G1 = f (A1) and G2 = f (A2) at two frequencies of the electromagnetic field f0 and f1 for acid, alkaline and average effluent and allows you to jointly determine the four parameters of effluent samples with the same converter in the same control area. The proposed method makes it possible to improve the accuracy of identifying effluent samples since the obtained multiparameter information makes it possible to determine the nature and properties of effluent samples using only one transducer with certain physical characteristics. The research results lead to the expansion of the technical capabilities of electromagnetic measurement methods, as well as to an increase in the metrological characteristics of electromagnetic transducers and an increase in the accuracy of measuring the parameters of effluent samples compared to reference methods and measuring instruments. Thus, the implementation of this approach contributes to the prediction and prevention of the reasons for the deviation of beer effluent samples from the specified indicators of environmental safety. The universal conversion functions MFP have been established, connecting the amplitude and phase components of the converter signals with the parameters k, εr, t and ρ of acidic, alkaline and average effluents. Based on the universal transformation functions G1 = f (A1) and G2 = f (A2), a four-parameter electromagnetic method for joint measurements of electrical resistivity k, relative permittivity εr, temperature t and density ρ of acidic, alkaline, and average effluents from breweries has been developed. When conducting research at two close frequencies of the electromagnetic field f0 = 20.3 MHz and f1 = 22 MHz, algorithms were obtained for measuring and calculating procedures for determining k, εr, t and ρ for samples of acidic, alkaline and average effluents from the brewing industry. Research perspectives consist in the creation of automated systems for multiparameter measuring control of the physicochemical characteristics of acidic and alkaline effluent from food and processing industries based on the immersed electromagnetic transducer. Based on the data obtained using informative methods to measure the parameters of effluent samples, an integrated method for treating beer effluents of various compositions will be proposed. At the same time, the scheme of the integrated treatment method should include a filter that provides the introduction of a magnetic fluid and a separation device that allows us to remove a fraction, including pollution in itself. Is that the proposed four-parameter electromagnetic method makes it possible to determine to what composition the controlled samples of wastewater should be attributed (acidic or alkaline). It, in turn, makes it possible to choose a rational method for treating beer effluents and to prevent the reasons for the deviation of effluent samples from the environmental safety indicators set by the standards. of the article is the research related to the expansion of the functional and technical capabilities of the electromagnetic two-frequency transducer MFP through the implementation of a four-parameter electromagnetic method of joint measurements of electrical resistivity k, relative permittivity εr, temperature t and density ρ of acidic, alkaline and average effluents from breweries. The universal transformation functions G1 = f (A1) and G2 = f (A2) found in the work at two close magnetic field frequencies, f0 = 20.3 MHz and f1 = 22 MHz, make it possible to control four physicochemical parameters of acidic, alkaline and average wastewater at the same time by the same MFP. An algorithm has been developed for determining the signal components of a two-frequency thermal MFP, the ranges of which correspond to the ranges of changes in electrical resistivity k, relative permittivity εr, temperature t and density ρ of acidic, alkaline, and average brewery effluents. The basic relations that describe the two-frequency four-parameter electromagnetic method of joint measurements of the physicochemical parameters of acidic, alkaline and averaged beer effluents have been obtained.

Uniqueness of system integration scheme of artificial intelligence technology in fractional differential mathematical equation

Abstract At present, various branches of mathematics have developed very mature, but they still lack an internal structural correlation. They are like “islands” in the universe. If we can find the universal conversion relationship of the three basic mathematical structures of geometry, arithmetic and logic, it will greatly expand the field of mathematics. The ultimate goal of mathematics in the past is to pursue its preciseness, while the ultimate goal of mathematics in the future is to pursue its unity. Fractional differential equation is a generalization of integer order calculus. It discusses the theory of any non integer order differential and integral equation. The rise of artificial intelligence technology just provides the most powerful laboratory for the unity of mathematics. To explore the mystery of the brain and achieve the ultimate goal of artificial intelligence technology, the key is to make a major breakthrough in basic mathematical research and find a basic theoretical system describing the mutual mapping and transformation of different mathematical paradigms. The unity of mathematics will undoubtedly become the forefront of the development of mathematics in the future, which will be the core of the research on the new generation of intelligent computer and artificial intelligence technology.

Preaching to the Choir Fantastic: Conversion and Racial Liminality in Elene

ABSTRACT In Cynewulf’s Elene — an Old English verse narrative in the Inventio Crucis tradition, which survives in the Vercelli Book — the figure of Judas stands out among the Jews of Jerusalem as the only person present who can answer Helena’s questions about the location of the True Cross. Although critical consensus has considered Judas to be an archetypal representative of the Jewish population of the city, this article argues that the poem actually constructs the religious race of Judas as a strangely liminal one, shifting him back and forth between the categories of Jew and Christian. Drawing upon concepts from medieval critical race studies and work on Jewish-Christian relations, it examines how Judas’s racial liminality lays the groundwork for the narrative’s culminating anti-Semitic fantasy of effortless universal conversion; furthermore, it offers a critique of allegorical reading practices in medievalist scholarship, and underscores the need for deliberate distancing between the medieval text and the modern reader.

Een examen in meertaligheid: Een reactie op de reacties van collega’s

In this response, I take the concept of monolingualism as a starting point to reflect on the authors’ comments regarding my lead article. For a long time, research in conversation analysis has mistakenly assumed that monolingual studies can explain universal conversation structures. Moreover, the new Common European Framework (2020) is also still based on separate monolingual tests. The authors agree that secondary school exams require thorough reconsideration. Greater focus on language training creating career opportunities in healthcare, media, advertising, marketing, government communications, and diplomacy could motivate students to embark on language studies. After all, students need to be prepared for a society that – as everyone agrees on – is multilingual.

Maometto a Roma e crociate in piazza: La facciata di Polidoro da Caravaggio e Maturino da Firenze in piazza Capranica

Mohammed in Rome and Crusades in the Square: Palace Facade in Piazza Capranica in Rome by Polidoro da Caravaggio and Maturino da Firenze This text examines the possible meanings of the facade painted by Polidoro da Caravaggio and Maturino da Firenze in Piazza Capranica in Rome. Considering some philological and hermeneutical questions still open, the essay highlights the links between the work and the topoi circulating in the cultural production in the pontificate of Leo X that support, more or less directly, the crusade promoted by the pope. To explain the iconographic choices of the artists, characterized by a clear anti-Ottoman connotation, some narrative schemes deriving from the tradition of eschatological thought and well documented in the textual network linked to the reign of Giovanni de’ Medici are analyzed. These schemes thematize the Western victory over the Turkish enemy and the universal conversion to Christianity, considered as necessary precursors for the fulfillment of the prophecy enunciated in the Gospel of John (10, 16: “fiet unum ovile et unus pastor”) and quoted in an inscription that stood out on the prospectus. The last part of the text is dedicated to the images of Polidoro and Maturino that were aimed at a very large audience. The levels of comprehensibility and semiotic efficiency are therefore discussed also in the light of the ‘street’ communication network, made up by professionals of ‘popular’ information such as errant preachers and storytellers, capable of disseminating the knowledge necessary to understand the sophisticated contents represented, creating proto-modern forms of public opinion available for war against the Islamic adversary.

Comparison of the efficiency of the Onderstepoort- and Centres for Disease Control ultraviolet light traps for the collection of livestock associated Culicoides species in South Africa.

Comparative monitoring of the abundance and distribution of Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), the biological vectors of the causative agents of several diseases of global veterinary importance, will be crucial in determining the risk of disease outbreak and spread. Ultraviolet (UV) suction traps have become the most frequent method used for the monitoring of Culicoides diversity and abundance. The current study compared the trapping efficiency of the two most used UV suction light traps, i.e., the Onderstepoort (OP)- and the Centres for Disease Control trap, for the collection of livestock associated Culicoides species in South Africa. The study confirmed the superiority of the OP trap and indicated a correlation in species composition and age grading results as determine with the two trap types. Substantial variations in the comparative trap efficiency, as found between areas and sites within an area, suggest that a universal conversion factor between the two trap types may not be advisable as it is unclear to what extent species composition and environmental factors may influence the conversion factor. Light traps, independent of trap model, can be considered acceptable for determining the serial comparison of population numbers for seasonal fluctuation and species abundance in distribution surveys.

Safety and efficacy of Botulinum toxin type A preparations in cerebral palsy - an evidence-based review.

The introduction of botulinum toxin more than 25 years ago for the management of paediatric lower and upper limb hypertonia has been a major advance. BoNT-A as a part of multimodal treatment supports motor development and improves function disturbed by spasticity or hypertonia. The aim of this paper was to compare the efficacy and safety of three major BoNT-A preparations present on the market: abo-, inco-, and onaobotulinumtoxinA in the treatment of children with cerebral palsy. Based on an analysis of the available literature, all three preparations have been established to reduce hypertonia in the upper and lower extremities, with some conflicting evidence regarding function. There were no differences in treatment safety, with a low incidence of adverse events which were mostly temporary and mild. Any form of universal conversion ratio between all preparations is not recommended.

Botulinum toxin type-A preparations are not the same medications - clinical studies (Part 2).

The growing number of Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) preparations on the market has resulted in a search for pharmacological, clinical and pharmacoeconomic differences. Patients are occasionally switched from one botulinum toxin formulation to another. The aim of this paper was to review studies that have made direct comparisons of the three major BoNT/A preparations presently on the market: ona-, abo- and incobotulinumtoxinA. We also review the single medication Class I pivotal and occasionally Class II-IV studies, as well as recommendations and guidelines to show how effective doses have been adopted in well-established indications such as blepharospasm, hemifacial spasm, cervical dystonia and adult spasticity. Neither direct head-to-head studies nor single medication studies between all preparations allow the formation of universal conversion ratios. All preparations should be treated as distinct medications with respect to their summary of product characteristics when used in everyday practice.

РЕШЕНИЕ ОБРАТНОЙ ЗАДАЧИ НАХОЖДЕНИЯ ПОВЕРХНОСТНОЙ ПЛОТНОСТИ ЗАРЯДА ПО ИЗВЕСТНОМУ ЭЛЕКТРИЧЕСКОМУ ПОТЕНЦИАЛУ СРЕДСТВАМИ COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS

Relevance Polymer materials capable of electric charge accumulation on their surface and in volume have wide application in a great number of applied problems of electrophysics and high-voltage engineering due to their excellent dielectric property. This property can be both an advantage (in electret manufacture), and a disadvantage (when using polymers as an isolating medium). Fundamentally important here is the need to characterize and control the degree of charge using the value of surface charge density which, however, can be determined indirectly through the electric potential only. When measuring the potential using a capacitive probe, difficulties arise in solving an inverse problem of converting the potential into surface charge density, since the relationship between these values largely depends on the geometry of the charged body and the capacitive probe. An effective and universal conversion method will greatly simplify the measurement of the surface charge density that will be helpful in practical tasks of electrical technology and operation of high-voltage equipment with elements made of polymer materials. Aim of research Aim of the research is to develop a technique for restoring surface charge density distribution according to a given measured distribution of electric potential created by the surface charge; give recommendations on how to achieve an optimal balance between accuracy and labor intensity of numerical calculations. Methods The problem is solved using numerical modeling in finite element method based software Comsol Multiphysics. With the help of the created 3D model containing the reproduced design of the capacitive probe and the charged examined material, the principle of the weight coefficients matrix formation is explained, through which the relationship between a discrete set of measured potentials and the unknown distribution of the surface charge density is subsequently established. Results An effective method has been developed to recalculate the known distribution of the electric potential from a charged surface into its surface charge density. The principle of constructing and setting the boundary conditions in the 3D model required for recalculation is shown. On the example of one given distribution of electric potential, the high efficiency of the method for obtaining the distribution of the charge density was shown. It has been established that the accuracy of the method increases with a finer partition of the charged surface into elementary charged areas. Recommendations are given on the use of methods for solving the arising systems of linear algebraic equations. It was also shown how to simplify the technique used in the presence of an axisymmetric distribution of the charge density.

Conversion factors for residential wood energy in the European Union: an introduction to harmonizing units of measurement

Wood energy data are reported in forest products and energy statistics but current use of heterogeneous units can result in major inconsistencies. Harmonization of wood energy statistics can benefit data quality and improve measuring sustainable practices, better informing policy-makers and analyzing feedstock competition. Harmonization of wood energy data and subsequent application in the forest product and energy sectors require appropriate conversion factors. We provide conversion factors for forest energy products relative to weight and volume for the residential sectors of EU28 member states. Selected forest products include wood from primary, secondary and tertiary sources considering differences in properties affecting conversion factors. Proposed conversion factors were derived from information on moisture content, heating value, density and changes in wood volumes due to swelling and shrinkage of wood. Heating values relative to weight denote conversion factors to transform weight to energy units that ranged from 13.88 to 17.14 MJ/kg. Computation of heating values relative to volume ranged from 7316 to 11,053 MJ/m³. The use of extreme conversion factors in a sensitivity assessment showed that the ranges between minimum and maximum values accounted for as much as 27% of total wood energy consumption. Application of conversion factors to EU28 residential wood energy consumption revealed inconsistencies between forest products and energy statistics. Closer collaboration between experts and use of universal conversion factors at national levels will likely improve data quality and direct comparability. Conversion factors used in the residential sector can facilitate harmonization in non-residential sectors, but sector-specific product characteristics require further adjustment.

Performance Assessment of Oil-Immersed Cellulose Insulator Materials Using Time–Domain Spectroscopy under Varying Temperature and Humidity Conditions

The measurement of polarization and depolarization currents (PDC) based on time–domain response is an effective method for state assessment of cellulose insulation material in oil-immersed electrical equipment. However, the versatility of the data obtained at different temperatures is limited because of the temperature dependence of the PDC. In this respect, the universal conversion of PDC data at different temperatures is an essential aspect to improve the accuracy of the determination of insulating properties of cellulose materials immersed in the oil. Thus, an innovative temperature conversion method based on polarization time-varying current (PTC, obtained by multiplying the polarization current and time) is proposed in this article. In the current work, the PTC data at different temperatures are obtained from the oil-immersed cellulose pressboards with different moisture. Afterwards, the functional model based on the power series theory is used to simulate the PTC data, through which the coefficients of the power series are found related to the test temperature of the PTC and the moisture content (mc%) of the oil-immersed cellulose pressboards. Furthermore, the functional relationship among moisture, test temperatures, and the feature parameter calculated by these coefficients is established. Thus, the PTC data at various temperatures can be calculated by the established function. The potential application ability of the proposed method is verified by comparing the calculated results with the measured results obtained from the various samples.

An Evaluation of Citizen Science Smartphone Apps for Inland Water Quality Assessment

Rapid and widespread monitoring of inland and coastal water quality occurs through the use of remote sensing and near-surface water quality sensors. A new addition is the development of smartphone applications (Apps) to measure and record surface reflectance, water color and water quality parameters. In this paper, we present a field study of the HydroColor (HC, measures RGB reflectance and suspended particulate matter (SPM)) and EyeOnWater (EoW, determines the Forel–Ule scale—an indication to the visual appearance of the water surface) smartphone Apps to evaluate water quality for inland waters in Eastern Australia. The Brisbane river, multiple lakes and reservoirs and lagoons in Queensland and New South Wales were visited; hyperspectral reflection spectra were collected and water samples were analysed in the laboratory as reference. Based on detailed measurements at 32 sites, covering inland waters with a large range in sediment and algal concentrations, we find that both water quality Apps are close, but not quite on par with scientific spectrometers. EoW is a robust application that manages to capture the color of water with accuracy and precision. HC has great potential, but is influenced by errors in the observational procedure and errors in the processing of images in the iPhone. The results show that repeated observations help to reduce the effects of outliers, while implementation of camera response functions and processing should help to reduce systematic errors. For both Apps, no universal conversion to water quality composition is established, and we conclude that: (1) replicated measurements are useful; (2) color is a reliable monitoring parameter in its own right but it should not be used for other water quality variables, and; (3) tailored algorithms to convert reflectance and color to composition could be developed for lakes individually.

Religion and space in colonial South America: a technology of geo-political rule and terrestrial-spatial subjectivity in the Jesuit missions of the Banda Oriental

ABSTRACT Based on a genealogical analysis of documentary evidence, this paper explores the comprehensive technology of geo-political rule that was applied in the missions established and governed by the Society of Jesus in the territories of the Banda Oriental in South America, from the early 17th century to the second half of the 18th century. The interdependent knowledges and practices of the technology – its contested logics of universal conversion, its hard and soft geo-political techniques, its terrestrial-spatial subjectivities – as well as the resistances that opposed the technology’s operation are discussed and conceptualized. These conceptualizations are presented as contributions to the studies on colonial religious governmentalities. The conclusions highlight the relevance of governmentality approaches and meta-institutional analytical perspectives for the study of religions and space and religious geo-politics in past and contemporary societies.

Dinamika Islam Nusantara (Studi Perbandingan Islam Tradisional di Pulau Bangka dengan Konsep Islam Nusantara)

This research compares the forms of traditional Islamic teaching on the Bangka island with the concept of ‘Islam Nusantara’ by Ahmad Baso. This research uses a qualitative method using social-historical. The object of this research is the traditional Islamic community in Bangka Island, including Pangkalpinang, Bangka Regency, Central Bangka Regency, West Bangka Regency, and South Bangka Regency. The results of this study showed that in terms of substance, the term 'Islam Nusantara' is an Islamic understanding and practice on the archipelago as a result of dialectics between Shari'a texts and local culture and reality. The spirit of 'Islam Nusantara' is an Islamic practice that is preceded by a dialectic between the sharia text and the reality and culture in which Muslims live. The perspective of ushul fiqh, the dialectical process between the sharia text and the reality and culture in which Muslims live is something normal that happens even when Islam is a universal conversation. ' Islam Nusantara' is a form of Islam as a universal religion, it has been embraced by millions of inhabitants of the archipelago and has collected thousands of legal products and other Islamic treasures. This is no different from the traditional Islamic concept on the island of Bangka. Traditional Islamic societies on the island of Bangka on certain seasons or days perform religious rituals such as nganggung. Nganggung is a form of conversion of non-Islamic beliefs to Islam. Not from a form that is converted from a dialectical form between Islamic texts and local culture. That is, Nganggung that still survive in the midst of Bangka society is not against Islam. If the Nganggung process is limited to conversion, of course there is no point in their Islam. A culture that has gained sharia legitimacy has become a ritual of worship. This process is something that is common in Kiai or ulama circles in the archipelago, including on the island of Bangka.

Conversion of calibration curves for accurate estimation of molecular weight averages and distributions of polyether polyols by conventional size exclusion chromatography

Accurate measurement of molecular weight averages (M¯n,M¯w,M¯z) and molecular weight distributions (MWD) of polyether polyols by conventional SEC (size exclusion chromatography) is not as straightforward as it would appear. Conventional calibration with polystyrene (PS) standards can only provide PS apparent molecular weights which do not provide accurate estimates of polyol molecular weights. Using polyethylene oxide/polyethylene glycol (PEO/PEG) for molecular weight calibration could improve the accuracy, but the retention behavior of PEO/PEG is not stable in THF-based (tetrahydrofuran) SEC systems. In this work, two approaches for calibration curve conversion with narrow PS and polyol molecular weight standards were developed. Equations to convert PS-apparent molecular weight to polyol-apparent molecular weight were developed using both a rigorous mathematical analysis and graphical plot regression method. The conversion equations obtained by the two approaches were in good agreement. Factors influencing the conversion equation were investigated. It was concluded that the separation conditions such as column batch and operating temperature did not have significant impact on the conversion coefficients and a universal conversion equation could be obtained. With this conversion equation, more accurate estimates of molecular weight averages and MWDs for polyether polyols can be achieved from conventional PS-THF SEC calibration. Moreover, no additional experimentation is required to convert historical PS equivalent data to reasonably accurate molecular weight results.

A universal method of sample preparation for liquid, solid, and gaseous samples based on a conversion solid-electrolyte reactor for measuring the isotope composition of light elements

A universal conversion solid-electrolyte reactor (SER) based on zirconium dioxide stabilized by yttrium oxide is developed. It ensures the complete oxidation of organic compounds of complex molecular structure in different physical states or the complete reduction of water and organic oxygen-containing substances in a flow of helium carrier gas. The optimum oxidation operation mode of the solid-electrolyte reactor is the mode ensuring the complete oxidation of organic compounds at the boundary line of the oxidation of organic compounds and, at the same time, prevents the inflow of oxygen from the environment to the carrier gas. The potential of the working electrode selected for carrying out experiments was equal to–175 mV (oxidation operation mode). The temperature of the reactor was 940–950oC. The standard deviations δ13СVPDB for organic substances oxidized by SER varied from 0.11 to 0.57‰ and were smaller than standard deviations in the oxidation of corresponding compounds in a commercial reactor. In using the SER–IRMS method (isotope ratio mass spectrometry combined with the solid-electrolyte reactor), a minimum amount of water (60–100 ng) was required. Standard deviations δDVSMOW attained using SER and using a commercial pyrolytic reactor were close to each other. Because of the simplicity and reliability of the design, the developed SER can successfully replace commercial oxidation and reduction reactors in isotope ratio mass spectrometry. In addition, the solid-electrolyte reactor can serve as a chromatographic detector, requiring no calibration in contrast to other detectors.

Critical Analysis of the van Bemmelen Conversion Factor used to Convert Soil Organic Matter Data to Soil Organic Carbon Data: Comparative Analyses in a UK Loamy Sand Soil

Converting soil organic matter (SOM) data to soil organic carbon (SOC) data usually uses the van Bemmelen factor of 0.58 (or in reverse its reciprocal of 1.724) as a universal conversion factor. The accuracy of this conversion factor has been questioned. Under the Kyoto Protocol (1997) dry combustion is recommended to provide reproducible analyses to measure soil carbon stocks. However, dry combustion equipment is expensive and entails high maintenance. For rapid and inexpensive measurements, loss-on-ignition (LOI) is often used. A total of 278 loamy sand topsoil (0-5 cm depth) samples were taken during three soil sampling sessions (9 January 2007, 22 January 2009 and 10 October 2011) from runoff plots, splash erosion plots and grassed/cultivated plots on the Hilton Experimental Site, Shropshire, UK. A total of 124 soil samples were collected from both runoff and splash plots in both 2007 and 2009 (Bhattacharyya et al., 2011a). Some 22 of the collected samples in 2011 were from grassland (Ah horizon) and eight from cultivated soils (Ap horizon). Homogenized soil samples were split and SOM was determined on oven-dried samples by LOI and total SOC was determined by dry combustion. A conversion factor of 0.845 was used to obtain SOC from total soil C, following Rawlins et al. (2011). Results showed strong associations (R² = 0.70, P 0.001, n = 278) between SOM and SOC data. For all data, SOM to SOC conversion factors varied between 0.36-0.98, with a mean value of 0.66 (SD = 0.105). The mean values of the conversion factor were 0.64, 0.69 and 0.56, respectively, for the samples collected in 2007, 2009 and 2011. Results indicate the van Bemmelen factor (0.58) is a reasonable predictor, but both temporal and spatial variations occur around it within a specific soil type. Thus, caution should be exercised in SOM/SOC data conversions using the van Bemmelen factor.