Units Of Bangladesh Research Articles

Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic doses among pediatric patients of inpatient, outpatient, and emergency care units in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study.

The heterogeneous pediatric populations, their physiological differences, along with the necessity of performing additional dose calculation, make the pediatric population more vulnerable to the incidences of inappropriate antibiotic doses. This study was conducted to examine and evaluate the appropriateness of antibiotic doses. A cross-sectional study with a quantitative approach was conducted in three hospitals located in Savar from January 06, 2021 to October 17, 2022. This study had used a convenient sampling method to collect 405 filled prescription orders from heterogeneous pediatric patients prescribed by physicians from emergency, inpatient, and outpatient care units of various clinical settings. The Harriet Lane Handbook was used as reference to investigate inappropriate doses of antibiotics. Subsequently, all analyses were conducted using the RStudio 1.3.959 software. Binary logistic regression was used to assess the risk of inappropriate antibiotic prescription in pediatrics. The overall prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic dosing in pediatrics was 335 out of 545 (61.5%). Overdosing (36.3%) and oral antibiotic prescriptions (64%) were more common than underdosing (20.4%) and parenteral antibiotics (36%). The majority (230 out of 405, 56.8%) of pediatric patients had prescriptions with inappropriate antibiotic doses, with prevalence rates of 33.8% for inpatients, 86.7% for outpatients, and 50% for emergency pediatrics. The results also indicated that pediatric patients in outdoor and emergency care units, infants, toddlers, and early childhood, those prescribed two antibiotics simultaneously, and those receiving parenteral antibiotics, were less likely to have inappropriate antibiotic dosages in their prescriptions. This study demonstrated that about one out of every two prescriptions had inappropriate antibiotic doses; in particular, prescriptions containing only one antibiotic exhibited a substantial proportion of inappropriate antibiotic doses. Inappropriate antibiotic doses may result in therapeutic failure, patient harm, and antibiotic resistance. Good clinical pharmacy practice and careful adherence to pediatric dosing standards may minimize inappropriate antibiotic doses.

Vaccination Utilization and Subnational Inequities during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis of Administrative Data across 12 Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

During and after the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic, many countries experienced declines in immunization that have not fully recovered to pre-pandemic levels. This study uses routine health facility immunization data to estimate variability between and within countries in post-pandemic immunization service recovery for BCG, DPT1, and DPT3. After adjusting for data reporting completeness and outliers, interrupted time series regression was used to estimate the expected immunization service volume for each subnational unit, using an interruption point of March 2020. We assessed and compared the percent deviation of observed immunizations from the expected service volume for March 2020 between and within countries. Six countries experienced significant service volume declines for at least one vaccine as of October 2022. The shortfall in BCG service volume was ~6% (95% CI -1.2%, -9.8%) in Guinea and ~19% (95% CI -16%, 22%) in Liberia. Significant cumulative shortfalls in DPT1 service volume are observed in Afghanistan (-4%, 95% CI -1%, -7%), Ghana (-3%, 95% CI -1%, -5%), Haiti (-7%, 95% CI -1%, -12%), and Kenya (-3%, 95% CI -1%, -4%). Afghanistan has the highest percentage of subnational units reporting a shortfall of 5% or higher in DPT1 service volume (85% in 2021 Q1 and 79% in 2020 Q4), followed by Bangladesh (2020 Q1, 83%), Haiti (80% in 2020 Q2), and Ghana (2022 Q2, 75%). All subnational units in Bangladesh experienced a 5% or higher shortfall in DPT3 service volume in the second quarter of 2020. In Haiti, 80% of the subnational units experienced a 5% or higher reduction in DPT3 service volume in the second quarter of 2020 and the third quarter of 2022. At least one region in every country has a significantly lower-than-expected post-pandemic cumulative volume for at least one of the three vaccines. Subnational monitoring of immunization service volumes using disaggregated routine health facility information data should be conducted routinely to target the limited vaccination resources to subnational units with the highest inequities.

How a Rural Bangladeshi Institute Survives Poverty And COVID: A Case Study On Nawdabash Madrasah and Orphanage

This paper portrays the efforts made by Nawdabash Madrasah and Orphanage, one of the religious units of Bangladesh, to deal with and survive impoverishment pre, during and post Covid-19 period. The author found the organization to be doing much better in terms of basic need fulfilment, finances, and maintenance during and post Covid time.

Convergence across subnational regions of Bangladesh – what the night lights data say?

We examine economic convergence among subnational regions of Bangladesh over the period 1992–2013. Unavailability of the traditional gross domestic product (GDP) for subnational areas and building on findings of recent luminosity literature, we use night lights intensity as a proxy for local economic activity to test the convergence hypothesis. Our results show the existence of both absolute and conditional convergence in night lights intensity, but with a very long half-life of convergence. Moreover, the results also indicate sigma divergence. Together, these findings suggest that regional disparity is persistent and wide across Bangladesh's 544 upazilas (subdistricts). There is evidence that lagging upazilas are catching up with the better off ones, but many are also converging with their neighbors or peers (a phenomenon known as “club convergence”). Overall, consistent with the evidence from studies on regional inequality in Bangladesh, our results also indicate that there is an “east-west” divide in luminosity across the subnational units in Bangladesh.

Challenges of LPG Supply, Distribution & Pricing in Growing Market: Bangladesh Case Study

The prime energy scarcity is nowadays a mostly the debated issue in Bangladesh in the awaken of spreading energy and fuel crisis. Pipeline natural gas support only 6 % domestic consumption of total population by 16 % of total produced gas which is declined mode. The claim of natural gas is on the continuous increase to meet domestic needs in the city, suburban areas together with industrial, commercial, power generation and diverse usage against the scarcity of gas. The demand for natural gas is on the continuous increase to meet domestic needs in the urban, suburban areas alongside industrial, commercial, power generation and diverse usage against the scarcity of gas. In this situation, LPG becomes a popular alternative energy source to reduce the natural gas crisis along with providing clean fuel in rustic areas. LPG is using by about 81% in its total amount for domestic purposes. At present in 2018 LPG demand in Bangladesh is approximate 750,000 MT and in future 2025 it would be 250, 0000 MT with growth rate 25%, 17 %, 14%, 15 %, 8%, 20% and 17% respectively. Now a day 12 KG LPG cylinders price is BDT 1150-1200 because of the variety of market barriers, government VAT and higher transaction costs which is not affordable for the middle as well as a low-income family though Bangladesh government fixed the price every month. LPG could assume an increasingly significant job in giving cooking energy to low-middle pay family units in Bangladesh if an appropriate advertising structure and circulation plan are masterminded. The aim of this project is to find out the challenges of LPG supply, distribution, and pricing in the growing Bangladesh market and to make a well planned and details road map so that LPG companies of Bangladesh can serve 70% of the domestic cooking fuel through LPG by 2025.

Convergence across Subnational Regions of Bangladesh – What the Night Lights Data Say?

We examine economic convergence among subnational regions of Bangladesh over the period 1992-2013. Absent the traditional gross domestic product (GDP) for subnational areas and building on the recent findings of luminosity literature, we use night lights intensity as a proxy for local economic activity to test the convergence hypothesis. Our results show the existence of both absolute and conditional convergence in night lights intensity, but with a very long half-lives of convergence. Moreover, the results also indicate sigma divergence. Together, these finding suggests that regional disparity is persistent and wide across the 544 upazilas (subdistricts) of Bangladesh. There is evidence that lagging upazilas are catching up with the better off ones, but many are also converging with their neighbors or peers (a phenomenon known as “club convergence”). Overall, consistent with the evidence from studies on regional inequality in Bangladesh, our results also indicate that there is an “east-west” divide in luminosity across the subnational units in Bangladesh.

Factors Affecting the Loyalty of Public Bank Employees of Bangladesh

The Banking sector is the most stable sector compared to other industrial units of Bangladesh. Presently, there are fifty-nine scheduled banks, including nine public banks in Bangladesh. A large number of people as employees are being connected with these banks. Their loyalty towards their jobs, along with other factors has an impact on the bank’s overall performance in this sector. Hence, this paper aims at evaluating the factors affecting the loyalty of public bank employees in Bangladesh. The Literature review found that various intrinsic and extrinsic factors impacts the fidelity of Public Bank employees in Bangladesh. Some innate factors like level of satisfaction, verbal performance appraisal, organizational reputation plays a major impact on the loyalty of the employees. Moreover, some extrinsic factors like compensation, training, career development, working environment impacts directly on the fealty of the employees. These factors are independent variables. Moreover, organizational well-being, financial performance are dependent variables. This study has been based on a survey of 200 employees of five leading public banks of Bangladesh.

Peer to Peer Synchronous Interaction and Student Engagement: A Perspective of Postgraduate Management Students in a Developing Country

The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between synchronous peer to peer interaction (PPSI) and student engagement in postgraduate management units in Bangladesh. Understanding of this association focused on outcomes of engagement with learning materials and workplace relevant learning. This study utilized an interventional and convergent parallel mixed methods research design. A PPSI intervention, involving teamwork of five students from working and non-working status, was applied on 80 students in two different management units. The intervention was followed by a survey on student’s perception of the association between PPSI and student engagement, which received 80% response rate. Content analysis was applied to the qualitative survey data while quantitative data were analyzed with SPSS software. Participant profile were 60% female, 95% below the age of 30 and 71% having work experience. The study found a significant positive association (r =.53) between PPSI and student engagement in postgraduate management study in Bangladesh. Peer to peer interaction helped students to collect different viewpoints, engage with learning material and practice workplace relevant skills. However, success of PPSI is influenced by factors such as task design, student’s attitude toward teamwork and ease of use of technology. This study is first of its kind to explore the in-depth relationship between PPSI and student engagement in an education setting in a developing country. It could open avenues for further research on designing and implementation of PPSI for student centered and work relevant learning, across developed and developing countries.

System and Cost Analysis of Stand-Alone Solar Home System Applied to a Developing Country

Power is one of the key requirements for the development of economies and upgrading of standards of living of developing countries. Countries such as Bangladesh depend largely on fossil fuels such as diesel fuel and natural gas to produce the main proportion of their electricity. However, this country’s combination of limited natural gas reserves high fuel prices and escalating costs of transmission and distribution lines has greatly increased the unit cost of electricity generation and it is becoming difficult for customers to pay for electricity. On the other hand, burning fuel causes environmental pollution that leads to global warming which is ultimately responsible for climate change and its devastating consequences. In this study, we have recommended a stand-alone system for the traditional consumption of domestic electric use at residential units in Bangladesh. We have shown a comparison of using the stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system with the traditional grid connection. Although the initial set-up cost is high, it becomes profitable as people are supplied with electricity, which is being generated from PV as a result minimizing the energy cost from the grid, and in addition, they can later make savings from this system. This paper, therefore, aims at determining the optimum size of the rooftop solar home system that will fulfil all the criteria for powering up electrical appliances at an affordable price. Comparative analysis of both energy systems based on the cost calculation has been performed by means of the Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Renewables (HOMER) software. The validity of this proposal and its usefulness is also analysed.

The impact of business intelligence on organization’s effectiveness: an empirical study

Purpose – The purpose of this study was to identify the influence of organizational strategy, structure, process and culture on organizational effectiveness and the possible mediating role of business intelligence (BI) systems among them. Design/methodology/approach – Sample data for this study were collected from 225 organizational units in Bangladesh and analyzed using the partial least squares method, a statistical analysis technique based on the structural equation modeling. Findings – The results revealed that organizational factors, such as organizational strategy, structure, process, and culture positively affect both BI systems’ effectiveness and organizational effectiveness. Furthermore, BI systems’ effectiveness partially mediates the impact of organizational strategy, structure, process and culture on organizational effectiveness. Originality/value – BI systems are context-specific and can influence organizational effectiveness. Dearth in research on the influence of organizational factors to B...

Social Determinants of Married Women's Attitudinal Acceptance of Intimate Partner Violence.

Informed by the social determinants of health (SDH) framework, this study examined whether women's attitudinal acceptance of intimate partner violence (IPV) varies according to material circumstances, such as characteristics of their communities. Data were obtained from the sixth Bangladesh Demographic Health Surveys (BDHS) of 2011, a cross-sectional and secondary population-based study that covers the entire population residing in noninstitutional dwelling units in Bangladesh. The sample included 16,480 married women living in 600 communities who were 15 to 49 years old. Results showed that community characteristics were significantly associated with married women's attitudes toward IPV. The associations, however, were considerably more complicated than previously thought. Community poverty and wife beating justification were inversely related, such that regardless of their socioeconomic status (SES), living in poorer communities increased women's likelihood of condemning IPV ( p < .001). Also, unexpectedly, as illiteracy increased in the community, women's likelihood of viewing IPV as justified decreased ( p < .01). Living in communities with strong patriarchal norms was associated with greater tolerance for IPV ( p < .001). Use of the SDH framework in this study provided empirical evidence of the importance of social determinants in determining risk for attitudinal acceptance of IPV among women, which can be targeted for future research and intervention.

Ethical Transnational Corporate Activity at Home and Abroad: A Proposal for Reforming Continuous Disclosure Obligations in Australia and the United States

MNCs establish operations in states with lower legal and ethical standards in areas including the environment, wages, labour standards, human rights, corruption, and company taxation. Corporate law scholars cannot be indifferent to the horrific consequences – from a contribution to rapes and violent incidents from trade in conflict minerals in the DRC to the killing of workers due to poor conditions in garment manufacturing units in Bangladesh. We advance a normative argument for clarifying and strengthening the existing model of disclosure-based regulation to hold MNCs accountable.

Quality Control Tests in Some Diagnostic X-Ray Units in Bangladesh

Regular implementation of quality control in diagnostic x-ray facilities is essential to provide good quality images which lead to proper diagnoses with minimum hazard and distress. Important performance tests in diagnostic radiology in Bangladesh are carried out according to a quality control protocol and the measured parameter values are compared to the relevant acceptance limits. In this work, beam alignment, field congruence, nominal focal spot, film-screen contact and half value layer for diagnostic x-ray facilities are measured by using beam alignment test tool, RMI/Victoreen collimator test tool, Bar pattern focal spot test tool, film/screen contact test tool (RMI143D), Gammex RMI step wedge and densitometer from forty different diagnostic x-ray facilities in Bangladesh. For congruence between optical and radiation fields, 77.5% are found to be within limit and 60% of facilities are within the beam alignment limit. For most of the installations, 92.5% nominal focal spot size of diagnostic x-ray machines is matched perfectly with the rating of focal spot size. In an effort to improve image quality, this study has checked the film-screen contacts of multiple facilities and found 65% to have the expected uniformity. While investigating half value layers (HVL), a measure of x-ray beam quality, it is found that none of the diagnostic x-ray installations can achieve the recommended levels. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjmp.v4i1.14688 Bangladesh Journal of Medical Physics Vol.4 No.1 2011 59-66

Implementation of Sepsis Bundles in Intensive Care Units of Bangladesh: A Prospective Observational Study

Objective: To assess compliance of Intensive Care Units (ICUs) of Bangladesh to the components of resuscitation &amp; management bundles of Surviving Sepsis Campaign (SSC). Secondary objective was to assess the impact of compliance on mortality and to determine how its compliance &amp; mortality compared with other Asian and Western countries. Design: Prospective Cohort study. Setting: 14 ICUs of Bangladesh. Participants: 65 adult patients with severe sepsis admitted into these ICUs in July 2009. The organizational characteristics of the participating centers, the patients’ baseline characteristics, the achievement of target within the resuscitation &amp; management bundle &amp; outcome data were recorded. Outcome: Compliance with the Surviving Sepsis Campaign’s resuscitation (6 hrs) &amp; management (24 hrs) bundles. Results: Hospital mortality in ICU patients of Bangladesh suffering from severe sepsis was 49·2%. It was significantly higher than countries reported. Compliance to entire components of both resuscitation &amp; management bundles were reported to be zero in ICUs of Bangladesh. Compliance of individual components of the bundles did not predict improved survival. Conclusion: In ICUs of Bangladesh, high mortality of severe sepsis and failure of compliance of SSC bundle guidelines to have positive impact on survival were presumably attributed to delayed diagnosis, poor adherence to &amp; delayed application of SSC guidelines on sepsis bundles. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bccj.v1i1.14359 Bangladesh Crit Care J March 2013; 1: 8-17

The Development Imperatives of SMEs in Bangladesh

SMEs are the engine of growth in Bangladesh. There are about 6.0 million SMEs in the country. About 90 per cent of all industrial units in Bangladesh are SMEs generating about 25 per cent of the GDP, employing about 31 million people and providing 75 per cent of household income. Various categories of SMEs together contribute between 80 per cent to 85 per cent of industrial employment and 23 per cent of total civilian employment in Bangladesh. About 60 per cent 65 per cent of SMEs are located outside the metropolitan areas of Dhaka and Chittagong. SMEs are providing job opportunities to about 70-80% of the non-agricultural labour force. The SME share in manufacturing value added to GDP varies at 28-30%. The services sector is primarily composed of SMEs, which is responsible for the bulk of employment growth. SME contribution to national export is significant through different industries such as ready-made garments, jute, and leather etc. Electrical and electronics, light engineering, and plastic goods, leather goods and footwear, agro-processing, fashion designing, knitwear and readymade garments, pharmaceuticals, jute and jute goods, handicraft, frozen fish, ceramics and furniture are the most promising SME industries in Bangladesh.

Influenza-associated mortality in 2009 in four sentinel sites in Bangladesh

To estimate influenza-associated mortality in Bangladesh in 2009. In four hospitals in Bangladesh, respiratory samples were collected twice a month throughout 2009 from inpatients aged < 5 years with severe pneumonia and from older inpatients with severe acute respiratory infection. The samples were tested for influenza virus ribonucleic acid (RNA) using polymerase chain reaction. The deaths in 2009 in five randomly selected unions (the smallest administrative units in Bangladesh) in each hospital's catchment area were then investigated using formal records and informal group discussions. The deaths of those who had reportedly died within 14 days of suddenly developing fever with cough and/or a sore throat were assumed to be influenza-associated. The rate of such deaths in 2009 in each of the catchment areas was then estimated from the number of apparently influenza-associated deaths in the sampled unions, the proportion of the sampled inpatients in the local hospital who tested positive for influenza virus RNA, and the estimated number of residents of the sampled unions. Of the 2500 people known to have died in 2009 in all 20 study unions, 346 (14%) reportedly had fever with cough and/or sore throat within 14 days of their deaths. The estimated mean annual influenza-associated mortality in these unions was 11 per 100,000 population: 1.5, 4.0 and 125 deaths per 100,000 among those aged < 5, 5-59 and > 59 years, respectively. The highest burden of influenza-associated mortality in Bangladesh in 2009 was among the elderly.

Injection Practices at Primary Healthcare Units in Bangladesh: Experience at Six Upazilla Health Complexes

Indiscriminate usage of injections and lack of safe practices during injection administration have been reported worldwide. Unnecessary and unsafe injection usage not only increases the financial burden but are also responsible for spreading blood borne diseases including HIV, HBV and HCV. To attain a better understanding of the situation of injection usage in Bangladesh, a study was conducted at six Upazilla Health Complexes (UHCs), which are primary healthcare units in Bangladesh. The study involved the retrospective collection of treatment sheets of 1048 in-patients at six UHCs from January 2009 to June 2009. The data was then analyzed using statistical tests. Among the patients investigated, 60.11% of the patients received injections and among them the male population received more injection than the female population (males vs. females = 62.50% vs. 55.85%). Patients below 12 years of age received the highest proportion of injections and highest usage of injections was observed in the month of March. The average number of injection(s) prescribed to a patient was 2.44 incurring a prescription cost of 280.22 Taka (USD 3.92 approx.). Injections were mostly prescribed in patients who were diagnosed with physical assault and acute watery diarrhea where intravenous fluids and antibiotics were most widely prescribed. Non-compliance to recapping of used injections was very common which accounted for 22.22% needle stick injuries. The data suggest that indiscriminate and unsafe injection practices were occurring in all UHCs. Such practices resulted in financial losses as well as compromising safety for healthcare providers and patients.

An Audit of Intensive Care Services in Bangladesh

This study was conducted to survey the facilities, bed strength, functional characteristics, manpower,operational practices and distribution of intensive care units in Bangladesh. Direct interview ofconsultants in charge of different Intensive Care Units (ICUs) in the city of Dhaka was conducted bya structured questionnaire. All Adult Intensive Care Units (ICUs) and Coronary Care Units (CCUs)with ventilator support in the city of Dhaka belonging to government and private sectors wereincluded. Our survey showed that 90% of all Intensive Care Units in Bangladesh were located in thecity of Dhaka. There were 40 Intensive Care Units in the city of Dhaka, of which 33 were ICUs and7 CCUs with ventilator support (also considered as ICU). Only 4 (10%) ICUs were located ingovernment hospitals. Rest of the ICUs was in private hospitals / clinics. Total number of ICU bedswas 424 and total numbers of beds in these hospitals were 8824. So 4.8% of total hospital beds wereprovisioned for critical care. Among these only 240 beds (60%) had ventilator support. 27(68%) ofthe 40 ICUs were multidisciplinary, 7(18%) CCUs, 5(12%) cardiac surgery and 1(2%) neurology.64% ICUs were run by anesthesiologists. 85% facilities were open units as opposed to 15% closedunits. Nurse: bed ratio of 1:1 was seen in 15(42%) facilities. On duty doctor: patient ratio wasvariable and highest was 1:4 in 9 ICUs (27 %). ICUs in Bangladesh are mainly situated in the cityof Dhaka and mostly in the private sector. The standards and management strategies vary greatly.Ibrahim Med. Coll. J. 2010; 4(1): 13-16Key words: Intensive Care Unit; Bangladesh; audit.DOI: 10.3329/imcj.v4i1.5929

Distribution and changes in heavy metal contents of paddy soils in different physiographic units of Bangladesh

The distribution and changes in the background levels of V, Cr, Mo, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, U, and As were assessed using 66 archived surface (Ap horizon) soil samples (22 for 1967 and 44 for 1995) analyzed by RIX 2000 x-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine whether a soil was polluted or not during the period 1967–1995 in Bangladesh. Distribution of the mean V content showed lower values (<15.6 mg kg−1) in the soils of the Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain (OHP), Barind Tract (BT), and Madhupur Tract (MT), values ranging between 115.6 and 169.0 mg kg−1 (mean ± SD / 2) in the Tista Floodplain (TF), Brahmaputra Floodplain (BF), Meghna River and Estuarine Floodplain (MF), Northern and Eastern Piedmont Plains (NEP), and Chittagong Coastal Plain (CCP), and higher values (>169.0 mg kg−1) in the Ganges Floodplain (GF) and Surma-Kushiyara Floodplain (SKF). The mean Cr contents were lower (<84.7 mg kg−1) in OHP, TF, BT, and MT, ranged between 84.7 and 107.1 mg kg−1 in GF, BF, MF, NEP, and CCP, and a higher content (>107.1 mg kg−1) was recorded in SKF. The mean Mo contents ranged between 2.01 and 2.11 mg kg−1 in all the physiographic units except for a lower content (<2.01 mg kg−1) in TF and a higher content (>2.11 mg kg−1) in the MT unit. The mean Ni contents were lower (<39.5 mg kg−1) in OHP, TF, and BT, ranged between 39.5 and 62.3 mg kg−1 in GF, BF, MF, MT, NEP, and CCP and a higher content (>62.3 mg kg−1) was recorded in SKF. The mean Cu contents were lower (<23.4 mg kg−1) in OHP, TF, BT, MT, and NEP, ranged between 23.4 and 39.8 mg kg−1 in MF, SKF, and CCP, and a higher content (>39.8 mg kg−1) was recorded in GF and BF. The mean Zn contents were lower (<60.3 mg kg−1) in OHP, BT, MT, and NEP, ranged between 60.3 and 90.9 mg kg−1 in TF, MF, and CCP, and a higher content (>90.9 mg kg−1) was recorded in GF, BF, and SKF. The mean Pb contents were lower (<21.7 mg kg−1) in TF, BT, and NEP, and ranged between 21.7 and 25.3 mg kg−1 in the other physiographic units. The mean U content was lower (<3.47 mg kg−1) in NEP and an almost uniform distribution between 3.47 and 5.29 mg kg−1 was observed in the other physiographic units except for a higher content (>5.29 mg kg−1) in TF. The mean As contents were lower (<6.2 mg kg−1) in OHP, TF, and BT, ranged between 6.2 to 8.7 mg kg−1 in BF, MT, MF, NEP, and CCP, and a higher content (>8.7 mg kg−1) was recorded in the GF and SKF soils. The contents of V, Cr, Mo, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, V, and As in the peat soil were 222.2, 111.1, 2.11, 63.4, 57.4, 108.8, 25.4, 5.28, and 12.3 mg kg−1, respectively. However, the distribution of the V, Cr, Mo, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, V, and As contents was in the range of 43.3–275.0, 61.0–176.0, 1.90–2.21, 14.0–134.0, 8.7–65.7, 27.8–138.0, 14.3–31.0, 2.23–5.93, and 3.9–14.0 mg kg−1, with mean values of 142.3, 95.9, 2.06, 51.0, 31.6, 75.6, 23.5, 4.38, and 7.5 mg kg−1, respectively, in 1995. The heavy metal contents of the surface soils were, generally, higher on the lower slopes than in the middle or upper parts of the landscapes. A wide variation in the changes of heavy metal contents was observed among the soils of different physiographic units in Bangladesh. Changes in the V, Cr, Mo, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, V, and As contents showed higher increases up to 33.1, 25.0, 15.38, 28.5, 35.5, 24.9, 19.0, 22.10, and 34.6% and higher decreases down to 24.3, 13.1, 2.56, 36.4, 51.0, 21.5, 12.3, 18.98, and 40.0% respectively, with mean values remaining almost unchanged (−1.87 to +6.81%) except for a decrease of 17.1% Cu during the period 1967–1995. Results of this study suggested that the soil properties (clay, total Fe and Al contents, ECEC, total C content, pH, total Sand P contents) are important factors regulating the natural background levels of heavy metals in the soils of Bangladesh.

Parasite removal by waste stabilisation pond systems and the relationship between concentrations in sewage and prevalence in the community

Waste stabilisation pond (WSP) performance for the removal of nematode eggs is generally considered to be excellent. In this paper, the performance of WSPs for parasite egg removal is reviewed. A simplified membrane filtration method for enumeration of parasites in sewage was introduced and applied to evaluate emergency anaerobic and permanent sanitation units in Bangladesh. With short retention times of 48-72 hours 99% egg removal efficiencies were achieved in the emergency unit using sewage from a cholera hospital complex. Permanent units gave poorer performance and, in a 23 day WSP system in Grand Cayman, it is possible that removal efficiency may have been impaired and hookworm eggs carried over to the final effluent. Evidence for carry over of eggs is critically re-assessed. Publications relating levels of prevalence of helminth parasites and concentrations in sewage are summarised, and data are interpolated to provide an understanding of the response-dose relationship. A classification of end emicity is proposed to assist in evaluating the success of helminth control programs.