United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organization World Heritage Research Articles

Flood inundation assessment of UNESCO World Heritage Sites using remote sensing and spatial metrics in Hoi An City, Vietnam

Flooding is the most frequent and damaging threat to The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites, and has been exacerbated by climate change. Hoi An Ancient Town, one of the world's cultural heritage sites in Vietnam, is facing inundation risks from increasing extreme flood events due to anthropogenic and natural processes. This study combines Geospatial Information System (GIS), remote sensing data, and landscape ecology metrics to assess the flood risk of Hoi An City. The analysis includes (1) classification of land-use/land-cover (LULC) using Sentinel-2 data; (2) computation of a flood risk index using hazard characteristics, physical and demographic exposures, and physical and socioeconomic vulnerabilities, together with adaptive capacity and spatial metrics, and the Fuzzy-Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method to determine the weight of each index and ranking; and (3) determination of flood risks for the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Hoi An City and the surrounding areas. By comparing model outputs with historical flood locations (N = 330), the study finds that >75% of past floods occurred at high or very high-risk areas forecasted by the model. Results from the model verified by true flood incidents show that the inundation hotspots are concentrated in the city's heritage sites, where human and climate changes have impacted landscape structure. The flood inundation risk mapping obtained from the synthesis analysis, encompasses hazard, exposure, and vulnerability, offering holistic knowledge to help reduce and manage flood risks at Hoi An World Heritage Sites. This method can be applicable to other sites with similar characteristics.

Appreciating failure and success to help nations unite

Research methodology The author employed a five-step approach: Data (e.g., qualitative primary and secondary data) collection (about a major project at the examined organisation), Critical thinking (in order to determine the dilemma), Setting learning objectives (e.g., with respect to the Bloom's taxonomy), Testing (in order to confirm the teaching plan) (e.g., with research assistants and doctoral candidates), and Ensuring clarity (e.g., especially for the case narrative). Case overview/synopsis The site manager at a UNESCO World Heritage Site by the name Ephesus in Türkiye (Turkey) was considering who would update the site management plan. UNESCO was regularly asking for updates. Would site management outsource the management plan from a firm? For example, the site management had had an outside firm develop the management plan and Ephesus had become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Otherwise, would the site management rely on their own experience this time? Was there another way? Complexity academic level The educators could use the case study to introduce graduate students to “the value conception” in “marketing management” courses and to “the social exchange school of thought” in “marketing theory” courses. The learning objectives develop over the tension between owning and outsourcing main responsibilities of a scientific field as well as the tension between claims and objective evaluations. “The value conception” in “the social exchange school of thought” could improve planning in favour of humanity in a way that the United Nations could recognise (e.g., “value-based planning”). Corresponding discussions motivate a main question about the future: What is marketing for?

Harmonizing Heritage and Artificial Neural Networks: The Role of Sustainable Tourism in UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The classification of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites (WHS) is essential for promoting sustainable tourism and ensuring the long-term conservation of cultural and natural heritage sites. Therefore, two commonly used techniques for classification problems, multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF) neural networks, were utilized to define the pros and cons of their applications. Then, according to the findings, both correlation attribute evaluator (CAE) and relief attribute evaluator (RAE) identified the region and date of inscription as the most prominent features in the classification of UNESCO WHS. As a result, a trade-off condition arises when classifying a large dataset for sustainable tourism between MLP and RBF regarding evaluation time and accuracy. MLP achieves a slightly higher accuracy rate with higher processing time, while RBF achieves a slightly lower accuracy rate but with much faster evaluation time.

Geomorphosite Inventory of Apollonia and Cyrene in Northeast Libya: involvement in Geotourism Promotion

Libya is located on the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea in the northern part of Africa. Geomorphological landforms known as geomorphosites are those that have been seen or exploited by humans as having scientific, cultural/historical, aesthetic, or social/economic significance. Various geomorphosites transverse Libya and can be found in other parts of the world. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) geoparks need to conduct a comprehensive inventory of such geomorphosites to protect, promote, and geoconserve these sites for future generations. Geotourism promotion in Libya offers a great opportunity for the local community to grow and prosper. Additional African and developing countries with attractive geosites and landforms that can be promoted as geotourism destinations should be included in this initiative. The present study evaluates and assesses the geomorphosites in Cyrene and Apollonia. These sites are considered to possess regional importance, whose particular archeological and world heritage sites are indexed in UNESCO World Heritage, which makes the region a unique study subject. The area is highly recommended to be a geopark. Libya’s substantial geological assets, notably geoheritage, are enhanced in this study. These resources can promote local, sustainable development through scientific research, educational initiatives, geotourism expansion, and diversification of Libya’s isolated desert areas.

Fire risk management in Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex as a UNESCO World Heritage Site: 2009-2019 experiences.

Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex (THBC) is one of the historical monuments of Iran. It has been registered in the list of The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites. However, the destructive power and frequency of fires are the main threat to this bazaar. This research examined the factors affecting the fire in THBC and the key components affecting the fire risk management based on the 2009-2019 experiences. The obtained findings showed that 25 components in economic, physical, socio-cultural, technical, and managerial dimensions were effective in the occurrence of fire in this bazaar. There were many fires during national-religious ceremonies. The highest rate of fire in leather shops was during carpet sales. Also, the highest rate of fire was from 22 to 3 at midnight, especially in winter. The results also showed that out of 26 components affecting fire risk management, 10 components were vital factors, the most important of which were modern equipment, control of electrical equipment, and night guards and activity monitoring. Finally, according to the obtained results, practical suggestions were offered to focus on modern equipment and the use of patrol forces.

The perception of UNESCO World Heritage Sites' managers about concepts and elements of cultural sustainability in tourism

PurposeThe research aims to identify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site (WHS) managers' perception of cultural sustainability concepts and elements in tourism.Design/methodology/approachA literature review was carried out to identify the main speeches and characteristic elements of cultural sustainability present in the academic field, and then a quantitative survey was carried out with 60 managers of UNESCO WHSs to evaluate their perception of the theme.FindingsThe results show that managers believe that the concept of cultural sustainability is much more closely linked to the social dimension of sustainability than to the economic and environmental dimensions. Thus, elements such as the preservation of tangible and intangible assets, the participation of society in the management of heritage, the democratization of access, the guarantee of the appreciation of culture and its preservation for future generations are basic elements for cultural sustainability. Finally, although they believe that understanding the concept of cultural sustainability is fundamental to their activities, they still lack knowledge of how to measure cultural sustainability in their spaces.Originality/valueAlthough the theme of sustainability has several published studies, most of the work focuses only on studies of its social, economic and environmental dimensions. The debates on the role of culture in sustainability are still incipient, and understanding the managers' perception of the topic enables the creation of more effective strategies that guarantee cultural sustainability in heritage by tourism.

The Role of Landscape Design in Cultural Rural Areas. A Didactic Exercise to Experiment a Research-by-Design Process Applied to an Italian UNESCO Wine Site

Rural landscapes all over the world are subject to great transformations, first being the continuous and slow depopulation of towns and villages. It is a dramatic phenomenon that causes devastating consequences for environmental systems and for the tangible and intangible heritage of entire territories. The situation becomes more ambiguous when it comes to cultural landscapes, especially those internationally recognized as exceptional (i.e., inscribed on the UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage List). In this case, the risk is to abandon agricultural production in favor of consumerist tourist economies, which can damage the territorial authenticity. In this paper, we question the role of the landscape design in strengthening territorial resilience. In particular, a composite and interdependent action has been proposed between landscape design and implementation of a multifunctional agriculture model, oriented towards tourism. To undertake this investigation, a master’s thesis work on Landscape Architecture has been examined as an opportunity to test the research-by-design method through the didactic process. The application case is the Italian UNESCO site of Vignale Monferrato, a depopulated rural village, characterized by abandoned land and buildings. The paper concludes by outlining replicability application scenarios for the proposed model.

Linguistic diversity and conservation opportunities at UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa.

Africa contains much of Earth's biological and cultural-linguistic diversity, but conserving this diversity is enormously challenging amid widespread poverty, expanding development, social unrest, and rapidly growing human population. We examined UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) Natural World Heritage Sites (WHSs) on continental Africa and nearby islands-48 protected areas containing globally important natural or combined natural and cultural resources-to gauge the potential for enlisting Indigenous peoples in their conservation. We used geographic information system technology to identify instances where Natural WHSs co-occur with Indigenous languages, a key indicator of cultural diversity. And, we compared the geographic ranges for 4 taxa and selected freshwater species with occurrence of all Indigenous languages within Natural WHSs and subsections of WHSs covered by the geographic extent of Indigenous languages to measure the correlation between linguistic and biological diversity. Results indicated that 147 languages shared at least part of their geographic extent with Natural WHSs. Instances of co-occurrence where a WHS, a language, or both were endangered marked localities particularly deserving conservation attention. We examined co-occurrence of all languages and all species, all languages and endangered species, and endangered languages and endangered species and found a correlation between linguistic and biological diversity that may indicate fundamental links between these very different measures of diversity. Considering only endangered species or endangered languages and species reduced that correlation, although considerable co-occurrence persisted. Shared governance of government-designated reserves is applicable for natural WHSs because it capitalizes on the apparent connection between culture and nature. Natural WHSs in Africa containing speakers of Indigenous languages present opportunities to conserve both nature and culture in highly visible settings where maintaining natural systems may rely on functioning Indigenous cultural systems and vice versa.

A tale of two cities: The fate of Delhi as UNESCO World Heritage

AbstractThis article examines the trajectory and fate of Delhi’s Imperial Capital Cities nomination, submitted to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2015 for inscription on the World Heritage List. I employ the dossier and events surrounding its withdrawal to reveal the political imbrications of urban conservation, international institutions, neoliberal governance, and colonial histories. First, I underscore the prominence of India as a member of the World Heritage Committee and its efforts to secure an increasing number of UNESCO properties. Second, I situate the dossier within the ambit of neoliberal governance that recalibrates and promotes urban heritage preservation, while similarly encouraging development and economic growth. Building upon this point, I consider how sustained government efforts to reframe Delhi as a “global city,” coupled with the identification of Delhi’s imperial capitals with Mughal and British rule, resulted in the dossier’s withdrawal. Third, the episode reveals tensions in this specific political moment over contemporary perceptions of imperial occupation and “foreign” empires, which plagued the dossier from the outset and continue to reverberate today. Finally, there are lessons to be learned for urban heritage in India and Asian heritage in general, outside the narrow purview of European cities, so many of which are already listed as World Heritage.

Preliminary Recognition of Geohazards at the Natural Reserve “Lachea Islet and Cyclop Rocks” (Southern Italy)

In this study, we present a preliminary recognition of geohazards at the natural reserve archipelago “Lachea Islet and Cyclop Rocks” by integrating infrared thermography (IRT) and morphological-aerial interpretation. The study area, located in the wider setting of the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage Mount Etna (eastern Sicily), is a worldwide renowned tourist destination suffering from a limited fruition due to the instability of rock masses. The peculiar setting of the area, represented by steep sea rocks and an islet, requires the employment of remote surveying methodologies for the preliminary slope characterization in the perspective of safe ground surveys. In this paper, IRT analysis allowed the recognition of signs of past rockfalls, as well as the presence of loose rock material likely laying in unstable conditions, thanks to the variation of the surface temperature characterizing the slope. The combination of IRT outcomes with morphological-aerial data allowed recognizing the potential source areas of future rockfalls, which were modeled through trajectory simulations. Results showed that a relevant strip of sea surrounding the studied sea rock could be crossed by falling blocks, suggesting the need of instituting a forbidden area for a safe fruition of the reserve. Furthermore, IRT allowed for the recognition of some peculiar features linked to the presence of tectonic lines. Such correspondence was validated by a comparison with literature structural data, proving the potential of such remote methodological approach. This represents a new aspect of the application of IRT to other fields of geosciences, thus representing a starting point for the scientific development of new technological branches.

Social and Economic Effects of UNESCO World Heritage Designation

Cultural sites and landmarks can play a unique role in the socioeconomic development of a community. Yet many cultural sites are facing two conflicting priorities: cultural preservation and economic gain. In response, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) attempts to help alleviate this conflict by creating the World Heritage list, a group of cultural and natural global sites that have “Outstanding Universal Value.” By designating a landmark as a “World Heritage” site, the landmark can obtain UN funds as needed. Although a widely held belief is that such UNESCO efforts help play a role in social and economic development of a community, this has not been proven. This paper examines this belief through analyzing correlations between increased UNESCO sites in an area and greater socioeconomic development. Four different socioeconomic factors were compared: Gross Domestic Product, Nights Spent in Tourist Accommodations, Unemployment, and Higher Education Levels. By standardizing these factors and drawing comparisons between sites, there was no evidence that there is a connection between a UNESCO designation and socioeconomic development. This then demonstrates that the aforementioned commonly held belief regarding development seems to be false. This paper concludes by outlining how a more thorough examination and understanding of the cultural contexts of World Heritage sites should be a required foundational best practice throughout this process. In turn, this paper advocates for drawing upon such knowledge when implementing enhanced publicity methods to help foster recognition of cultural sites in mainstream society. As a result of these endeavors, such communities would be more likely to gain greater economic prosperity.

Ozone pollution in the west China rain zone and its adjacent regions, Southwestern China: Concentrations, ecological risk, and Sources

Located in the transitional region between the Sichuan Basin (SCB) and Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP), the West China Rain Zone (WCRZ) is a large-scale ecotone and partially belongs to the Southwest China Mountains, which is one of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots. Using observation data from national air quality stations and our own monitoring data, we investigated the risk from O3 to vegetation and the major source-region of O3 for two UNESCO (i.e., United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) world heritage properties (Mt. Qingcheng and Mt. Emei) and one city (Ya’an) in the WCRZ. The results show that the annual mean maximum daily 8-h average (MDA8) O3 concentration in Mt. Qingcheng (54 ppb) was higher than that in the adjacent SCB cities (38–48 ppb). The acute and chronic risk levels from O3 to vegetation were also higher in Mt. Qingcheng than at all the other sites. The mean MDA8 O3 concentrations and the O3 risk levels to vegetation in Mt. Emei and Ya’an fell in the range of that at the SCB and QTP cities. However, O3 exposures at all the WCRZ, SCB, and QTP sites exceeded the empirical critical loads for natural ecosystems, forest trees, and highly O3-sensitive plants. The SCB was identified as the largest source-region of O3 for Mt. Qingcheng and Mt. Emei but other Chinese regions and northern India also had considerable contributions. To protect biodiversity and ecosystem services, there is a need to further systematically study O3 and its ecological impacts for the entire WCRZ.

An Ecolabel for the World Heritage Brand? Developing a Climate Communication Recognition Scheme for Heritage Sites

This study develops a climate communication recognition scheme (CCRS) for United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites (WHS), in order to explore the communicative power of heritage to mobilize stakeholders around climate change. We present this scheme with the aim to influence site management and tourist decision-making by increasing climate awareness at heritage sites and among visitors and encouraging the incorporation of carbon management into heritage site management. Given the deficits and dysfunction in international governance for climate mitigation and inspired by transnational environmental governance tools such as ecolabels and environmental product information schemes, we offer “climate communication recognition schemes” as a corollary tool for transnational climate governance and communication. We assess and develop four dimensions for the CCRS, featuring 50 WHS: carbon footprint analysis, narrative potential, sustainability practices, and the impacts of climate change on heritage resources. In our development of a CCRS, this study builds on the “branding” value and recognition of UNESCO World Heritage, set against the backdrop of increasing tourism—including the projected doubling of international air travel in the next 15–20 years—and the implications of this growth for climate change. The CCRS, titled Climate Footprints of Heritage Tourism, is available online as an ArcGIS StoryMap.

Foodservice in a UNESCO Site: The Restaurateurs’ Perception on Communication and Promotion Tools

The foodservice sector plays an important economical role in the “Langa del Barolo”, in Northwest Italy. It is now on the UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage List and is in first place in Italy in the Vineyard Landscape field, along with the Roero and Monferrato territories. The tourists who visit this area are constantly increasing and its inscription in UNESCO World Heritage List seems to have increased its international appeal even more. This study aimed at obtaining feedback from the “Langa del Barolo” restaurateurs as to their perception of the communication and promotion tools implemented to enhance the territory. A semi-structured interview, that adopted a questionnaire based on the PAPI technique, was used to survey all the 78 restaurateurs in this area. This technique was chosen to stimulate the individual propensity of the restaurant owner to share information freely. It was observed that the UNESCO status provides new stimuli for the restaurateurs when carrying out their activities, increases tourist’s interest in the “Langa del Barolo” and disseminates the local brands at an international level. Other tools, such as TripAdvisor, word-of-mouth, Slow Food and gastronomic guides, were also presented and discussed with the participants. The feedback and results demonstrate that having a UNESCO status improves and enhances the territory, making it an extremely useful promotion tool.

Historic Urban Landscape and the Character of George Town, Penang UNESCO World Heritage Site

The increasing intervention from high rise construction and new developments within the historic urban fabric are threatening the existing character and the Outstanding Universal Value of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage Site List. This paper propagates that through the identification of historic urban landscapes that influence the character of the George Town world heritage sites, we are able to understand the relationships between the landscape components and the importance of historic characters of the sites. The methodology of this paper is based on written descriptions and site visual observations. The outcome of this paper reveals the significance of tangible and intangible factors that influence the urban landscape character of the case study area.

World Heritage and WikiLeaks

Globalization and world-making projects, like the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage program, have changed the stakes for particular heritage sites. Through processes of greater interdependence and connectivity, specific sites are transformed into transactional commodities with exchange values that transcend their historical or material characteristics and thus can be wrested from those contexts to serve other international interests. To illustrate, I employ evidence from the US diplomatic cables released by WikiLeaks to offer an unprecedented vantage onto one contested archaeological site, Preah Vihear temple in Cambodia. Thrust into the international spotlight with UNESCO World Heritage inscription in 2008, followed by the International Court of Justice rulings, we can trace the site’s connectivity across national political intrigues, international border wars, bilateral negotiations surrounding gas and steel contracts, and military alignments. The very fact that so much politicking occurred around one site, and one that was largely invisible in international heritage circles until its controversial UNESCO listing and the resultant border war, is instructive. In essence, what the leaked cables reveal are the linkages between seemingly unrelated spheres and events, thus underscoring the intricate hyperconnectivity of heritage.

World Heritage, Tourism and Community Involvement: A Comparative Study of the High Coast (Sweden) and Kvarken Archipelago (Finland)

The main purpose of this article is to portray locals’ perception of tourism impact, rural development and the role of the local communities in two World Heritage (WH) sites. The impact of WH on tourism is a much-debated matter for both WH practitioners and academics while United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) during the last 10 years has emphasised the concept of “community” as an integrated feature of the WH strategy. The results are based on an empirical attitude study in combination with focus group interviews portraying local residents’ perception of WH designation and tourism in the transnational WH High Coast/Kvarken Archipelago situated in Sweden and Finland. The overall local perception of WH designation is quite similar in both countries, although ways of administrating WH sites differ. The results show an overall positive attitude towards local tourism development, but a relatively low understanding of UNESCO WH concept. High Coast residents seem to be overall more positive than the locals in Kvarken to the WH designation and a possible increase in tourism. The Finnish authorities, on the one hand, seem to have a stronger urge to benefit from the WH status than their Swedish counterparts. Nevertheless, the WH status in the rural areas of the High Coast region fits into a larger destination building and does not alone constitute the driving force for regional tourism development. Both WH sites show a limited and partly conflict-laden collaboration between communities and authorities in WH planning. Improved cooperation between actors would give WH and tourism a better chance to develop and at the same time display a more positive image of the WH sites.

Earth Observation for the World Cultural and Natural Heritage

Abstract The main goal of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is to “encourage the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity” (World Heritage Convention). To date (April 2015), UNESCO World Heritage List consists of 1007 cultural (monuments, group of buildings, sites) and natural (natural features, geological and physiographical formations, natural sites) properties, 46 of them being considered under threat. The monitoring of the sites included on the UNESCO World Heritage List can be performed based on Earth Observation (EO) data. Nowadays, remote sensing is an excellent monitoring tool due to the recently launched satellite missions that enable the acquisition of very high resolution optical data (with an information content similar to aerial imagery) together with a wider offer of spectral bands. Not only the development of remote sensing sensors is impressive, but also the creation of new synthetic aperture radar interferometric (InSAR) techniques that enable the ground deformation/displacement monitoring up to a few millimeters, based on multi-temporal series of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data. In 2003, UNESCO and the European Space Agency (ESA) signed the “Open Initiative on the Use of Space Technologies to Support the World Heritage Convention” that has the goal to protect, monitor, document, present and share the World Heritage sites. In this context, the term “space technologies” refers mainly to Earth Observation and secondly to other technologies such as navigation, positioning, communication, etc. In accordance with the “Open Initiative”, the study aimed at monitoring the Historic Centre of Sighisoara, a cultural heritage site inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1999 due to its architectural and urban monuments that were built starting with the 13 th century. The results provide the Romanian National Commission for UNESCO and the assisting responsible authorities a support for informed decisions and may represent the foundation of a pilot monitoring service for the Romanian natural and cultural heritage sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Scaling the Local: Canada’s Rideau Canal and Shifting World Heritage Norms

Challenges to the predominantly European conception of heritage enshrined in the 1972 World Heritage Convention arose in the early 1990s, from both the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and its member states. In 1992, the Friends of the Rideau, a Canadian nongovernmental organization in charge of the eponymous canal’s heritage, launched a campaign to inscribe their site on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The Canadian government, spurred to action by the Friends’ initiative, took the lead in orchestrating the diplomatic ballet necessary to validate canals as a form of World Heritage—one that challenged the predominantly European aesthetic understanding of heritage. The Friends’ and Canada’s interactions in favor of inscribing the Rideau demonstrate how global norms can be appropriated by local communities, and how the process can in turn influence the very same global norms. Furthermore, this case provides empirical evidence for the legitimizing function of expertise.

The Role of Multilateral Environmental Agreements in Armed Conflict: ‘Green-keeping’ in Virunga Park. Applying the UNESCO World Heritage Convention in the Armed Conflict of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

This article analyses the application of the 1972 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Convention (the WHC) in the context of the armed conflicts that have taken place in the Virunga National Park (the Park), a natural world heritage site in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the DRC). Instead of addressing wartime environmental damage under the law of armed conflict, this article seeks to establish how such damage can be addressed using multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). MEAs often consist of general principles and vague obligations and their relevance or applicability during situations of armed conflict may be questioned. However, a number of MEAs, including the WHC, authorise their convention bodies to develop detailed and substantive obligations applicable to their parties. Thus, the decisions and recommendations adopted by the World Heritage Committee, a body established under the WHC, provide substantive content to the provisions of the WHC. These decisions and recommendations may, however, run counter to the requirements of military necessity thereby affecting the application of the law of armed conflict. While the position adopted by the World Heritage Committee does not inevitably imply a clash between the obligations in the WHC and the law of armed conflict, it does raise the question of whether the outstanding values of world heritage should trump the rules of military necessity and other pressing concerns during armed conflict. On an informal basis, the World Heritage Committee and the UN peacekeeping forces deployed in the DRC have agreed to perform operations that jointly address the interconnected concerns of security and conservation of natural resources in the region of the Park. This cooperative ‘green-keeping’ operation represents a useful approach to regime interaction and the harmonisation of obligations set out in different legal regimes that are applicable to the same subject matter.