United Methodist Clergy Research Articles

The Selah trial: A preference-based partially randomized waitlist control study of three stress management interventions.

Chronic stress undermines psychological and physiological health. We tested three remotely delivered stress management interventions among clergy, accounting for intervention preferences. United Methodist clergy in North Carolina enrolled in a partially randomized, preference-based waitlist control trial. The interventions were: mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), Daily Examen prayer practice, and Stress Proofing (stress inoculation plus breathing skills). Co-primary outcomes were symptoms of stress (Calgary Symptoms of Stress Inventory) and 48-hour ambulatory heart rate variability (HRV) at 12 weeks compared to waitlist control. Survey data were collected at 0, 12, and 24 weeks and 48-hour ambulatory HRV at 0 and 12 weeks. The 255 participants were 91% White and 48% female. Forty-nine participants (22%) without a preference were randomly assigned between the three interventions (n = 40) and waitlist control (n = 9). Two hundred six participants (78%) with a preference were randomly assigned to waitlist control (n = 62) or their preferred intervention (n = 144). Compared to waitlist control, MBSR [mean difference (MD) = -0.30, 95% CI: -0.41, -0.20; P < .001] and Stress Proofing (MD = -0.27, 95% CI: -0.40, -0.14; P < .001) participants had lower stress symptoms at 12 weeks; Daily Examen participants did not until 24 weeks (MD = -0.24, 95% CI: -0.41, -0.08). MBSR participants demonstrated improvement in HRV at 12 weeks (MD = +3.32ms; 95% CI: 0.21, 6.44; P = .036). MBSR demonstrated robust improvement in self-reported and objective physical correlates of stress; Stress Proofing and Daily Examen resulted in improvements in self-reported correlates of stress. These brief practices were sustainable and beneficial for United Methodist clergy during the heightened stressors of the COVID pandemic. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04625777.

Pastoring in a Pandemic: Sources and Types of Social Support Used by United Methodist Clergy in the Early Period of the COVID-19 Pandemic

COVID-19 and its associated restrictions around in-person gatherings fundamentally unsettled routine ways of doing ministry. In this article, we draw on 50 in-depth interviews conducted with United Methodist clergy in the early period of the COVID-19 pandemic (June 2020–January 2021) to examine the sources and t ypes of social support pastors relied on during this time. We found that most clergy reported drawing from a diverse eco-system of social supports and turned to different sources of support—for example, other clergy, local church members, and denominational leaders—for different types of support—for example, informational, instrumental, and/or emotional. This study extends existing research on clergy well-being by examining whether the social support used by clergy during the COVID-19 map onto those identified in previous research and by specifying the types of support that were most salient. In the discussion, we consider the broader implications of our findings for clergy well-being beyond the pandemic period.

The Selah Pilot Study of Spiritual, Mindfulness, and Stress Inoculation Practices on Stress-Related Outcomes Among United Methodist Clergy in the United States

The job–demand–control–support model indicates that clergy are at high risk for chronic stress and adverse health outcomes. A multi-group pre-test–post-test design was used to evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and range of outcome effect sizes for four potentially stress-reducing interventions: stress inoculation training, mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), the Daily Examen, and Centering Prayer. All United Methodist clergy in North Carolina were eligible and recruited via email to attend their preferred intervention. Surveys at 0, 3, and 12 weeks assessed symptoms of stress, anxiety, and perceived stress reactivity. Heart rate variability (HRV) was assessed at baseline and 12 weeks using 24 h ambulatory heart rate monitoring data. A subset of participants completed in-depth interviews and reported skill practice using daily text messages. Standardized mean differences with 95% and 75% confidence intervals were calculated for the change observed in each intervention from baseline to 3 and 12 weeks post-baseline to determine the range of effect sizes likely to be observed in a definitive trial. 71 clergy participated in an intervention. The daily percentage of participants engaging in stress management practices ranged from 47% (MBSR) to 69% (Examen). Results suggest that participation in Daily Examen, stress inoculation, or MBSR interventions could plausibly result in improvement in stress and anxiety at 12 weeks with small-to-large effect sizes. Small effect sizes on change in HRV were plausible for MBSR and Centering Prayer from baseline to 12 weeks. All four interventions were feasible and acceptable, although Centering Prayer had lower enrollment and mixed results.

Divine Struggles Among Those Doing God’s Work: A Longitudinal Assessment Predicting Depression and Burnout and the Role of Social Support in United Methodist Clergy

Abstract In this study, we examine the role of spiritual struggles among clergy, in the form of “divine struggle” or feelings of alienation from God and their associations with well-being (depressive symptoms and burnout) among clergy. Drawing from a life-stress perspective, we also test whether received and anticipated congregational support moderates these associations. Using two waves of data (2016–2019) of the Clergy Panel Health Survey of United Methodist clergy in North Carolina (n = 1,261), results suggest that it was clergy who increased in divine struggles over time who had the highest depressive symptom and burnout scores. However, clergy who received significant emotional support from members of their congregation were protected from elevated depressive symptoms and greater burnout. Anticipated congregational support only buffered the relationship between increasing divine struggles and one component of burnout (positive achievement). We offer some broader implications for supporting clergy well-being in the face of divine struggles.

Spiritually Well, Mentally Well? Examining the Early Life Religious Antecedents of the Impact of Spiritual Well-Being on Mental Health Among United Methodist Clergy in North Carolina.

Research has consistently shown that the seeds of religiosity are planted and begin to take form during early life socialization, but little attention have been given to these dynamics among clergy members. In this study, we consider whether early life religious exposure may amplify the beneficial effects of spiritual well-being (having a "thriving" spiritual life) for mental health and burnout for clergy. Drawing from a life course perspective, we use longitudinal data from the Clergy Health Initiative, which sampled United Methodist Clergy in North Carolina (n = 1330). Key results suggest that higher frequencies of childhood religious attendance were consistently associated with lower depressive symptoms and burnout. The beneficial associations between spiritual well-being and lower depressive symptoms and burnout were also stronger for clergy with greater church attendance in childhood. The accumulation of "religious capital" for clergy who were raised in religious households with regular service attendance appear to accentuate the positive effects of spiritual well-being, which encompass a greater sense of closeness to God in their own lives and in ministry. This study identifies the importance of researchers taking a "longer" view of the religious and spiritual lives of clergy.

The Gap in Mental Health Service Utilization Among United Methodist Clergy with Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms

Clergy are tasked with multiple interpersonal administrative, organizational, and religious responsibilities, such as preaching, teaching, counseling, administering sacraments, developing lay leader skills, and providing leadership and vision for the congregation and community. The high expectations and demands placed on them put them at an increased risk for mental distress such as depression and anxiety. Little is known about whether and how clergy, helpers themselves, receive care when they experience mental distress. All active United Methodist Church (UMC) clergy in North Carolina were recruited to take a survey in 2019 comprising validated depression and anxiety screeners and questions about mental health service utilization. Bivariate and Poisson regression analyses were conducted on the subset of participants with elevated depressive and anxiety symptoms to determine the extent of mental health service use during four different timeframes and the relationship between service use and sociodemographic variables. A total of 1,489 clergy participated. Of the 222 (15%) who had elevated anxiety or depressive symptoms or both, 49.1% had not ever or recently (in the past two years) seen a mental health professional. Participants were more likely to report using services currently or recently (in the past two years) if they were younger, had depression before age 21, or "very often" felt loved and cared for by their congregation. The rate of mental health service use among UMC clergy is comparable to the national average of service use by US adults with mental distress. However, it is concerning that 49% of clergy with elevated symptoms were not engaged in care. This study points to clergy subgroups to target for an increase in mental health service use. Strategies to support clergy and minimize mental health stigma are needed.

Are Women Elders Paid Less than Men? A Brief Report from the North Carolina Statewide Longitudinal Survey of United Methodist Clergy

Background Research has established that salary disparities exist between men and women pastors in the United Methodist Church. However, little work has been done examining the root and trajectories of these differences within the denomination. Purpose In this report, we explore systematic salary differences between United Methodist men and women elders (i.e. ordained clergy) serving in one of the two Annual Conferences in North Carolina. Methods We used six rounds of survey data the Duke Clergy Health Initiative collected as part of the Statewide Longitudinal Study of United Methodist clergy serving in North Carolina between 2010 and 2021. We restricted our analysis to elders serving in active, full-time appointments. We ran four models to assess salary differences between men and women elders. First, we calculated the average salaries by year and gender among all elders. Second, we did the same for elders with five or fewer years of experience. Third, we modeled the average percent salary growth between survey waves by gender. Finally, we modeled elders' salary trajectories based on the year they started in ministry, their years of experience, and their gender. Results Although we found a gender salary disparity among all elders—women do not earn as much as men—the gap is slowly closing. However, this disparity did not exist among elders with five or fewer years of experience. When we considered the average salary growth respondents experienced from one survey wave to the next, we found that, on average, women receive slightly larger (but not statistically significant) increases than men. The final model assessing elders' salary trajectories suggested that salary disparities between men and women were more prominent several decades ago. Assuming a career span of 30 years, the model projects that a woman starting in ministry in 1990 will have earned an average of $6,200 a year less than a man starting in the same year. This gap narrowed to $3,600 among those starting in 2000 and disappeared completely by 2010. And yet, the same model predicts that salary disparities still exist between men and women in the United Methodist Church—a decade after the denomination reached a point where our model projects no gender disparities between the salary trajectories of new pastors. Conclusions and Implications Our analysis suggests that, while male elders have significantly higher salaries than their female counterparts, these two groups have been equitably compensated for the past decade. These two phenomena can both exist because past gender disparities reverberate long into the careers of clergy. This is because, even though salaries across genders may be treated equally now, they are not making up for lost ground. For example, women starting in ministry in 1990 may have experienced the same rate of salary growth as men from 2010 to 2020, but earned less during this timeframe because they entered this period with lower initial salaries than men. For this reason, our model predicts that, although the salary trajectories for men and women were equal starting ministry in 2010, it may be another decade before there is no difference between the average salaries of men and women pastors. Nevertheless, this projection assumes that recent trends persist—something that remains to be seen. Only time will tell if this continues or if women will hit a glass ceiling as their careers unfold.

The Selah study protocol of three interventions to manage stress among clergy: a preference-based randomized waitlist control trial

IntroductionLike many helping professionals in emotional labor occupations, clergy experience high rates of mental and physical comorbidities. Regular stress management practices may reduce stress-related symptoms and morbidity, but more research is needed into what practices can be reliably included in busy lifestyles and practiced at a high enough level to meaningfully reduce stress symptoms.Methods and analysisThe overall design is a preference-based randomized waitlist control trial. United Methodist clergy in North Carolina will be eligible to participate. The intervention and waitlist control groups will be recruited by email. The interventions offered are specifically targeted to clergy preference and include mindfulness-based stress reduction, Daily Examen, and stress inoculation training. Surveys will be conducted at 0, 12, and 24 weeks with heart rate data collected at 0 and 12 weeks. The primary outcomes for this study are self-reported symptoms of stress and heart rate at week 12 for each intervention compared to waitlist control; the secondary outcome is symptoms of anxiety comparing each intervention vs waitlist control.Ethics and disseminationEthical approval was obtained from the Duke University Campus IRB (2019-0238). The results will be made available to researchers, funders, and members of the clergy community.Strengths and limitations of this studyWhile evidence-based stress reduction practices such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) exist, a wider variety of practices should be tested to appeal to different individuals.Clergy in particular may prefer, and consequently enact, spiritual practices like the Daily Examen, and individuals such as clergy who spend most of their time thinking and feeling may prefer experiential-based practices like stress inoculation training.If efficacious, the Daily Examen and stress inoculation training practices have high feasibility in that they require few minutes per day.This study is limited by the inclusion of Christian clergy of only one denomination.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT04625777. November 12, 2020.

Changes in Sabbath-Keeping and Mental Health Over Time: Evaluation Findings From the Sabbath Living Study

Work-related stress is experienced at a high level in the United States. Clergy are particularly likely to over-extend themselves to act on their sacred call. Sabbath-keeping may offer a practice that is beneficial for mental health, yet many Protestant clergy do not keep a regular Sabbath. We examined whether United Methodist clergy who attended informative Sabbath-keeping workshops reported changes in spiritual well-being and mental health post-workshop. Compared to baseline, at 3 and 9 months post-workshop, participants reported an increase in Sabbath-keeping. In adjusted random effects and Poisson models, compared to not changing Sabbath-keeping frequency, increasing Sabbath-keeping was related to only one outcome: greater feelings of personal accomplishment at work. Decreasing Sabbath-keeping was related to worse anxiety symptoms, lower spiritual well-being in ministry scores, and a higher probability of having less than flourishing mental health. For four outcomes, there were no significant associations with changes in Sabbath-keeping over time. Although lacking a control group, this study adds to cross-sectional Sabbath-keeping studies by correlating changes in Sabbath-keeping with changes in mental health outcomes over time.

Self-Regard in Pastoral Ministry: Self-Compassion versus Self-Criticism in a Sample of United Methodist Clergy

Pastoral ministry is a demanding and stressful vocation, and the empirical and anecdotal literature on ministry has often emphasized this negative outlook. More recent work, however, has shifted toward a more positive emphasis on personal characteristics that might help pastors be more resilient. The present study examined the interplay of identity demands, social support, and self-regard in accounting for both positive (positive affect and life satisfaction) and negative (negative affect and burnout) outcomes. Self-compassion, which was measured using the short form of Neff’s (2003) Self-Compassion Scale (SCS-SF), was herein reconceptualized as being comprised of two types of self-regard: self-compassion and self-criticism. Regression analyses with data collected from 200 United Methodist pastors indicated that social support and self-compassion (in descending order of importance) explained a significant proportion of the variance of the positive outcome, while self-criticism, social support, demand, and gender explained the negative.

Clergy Education and the Development of Emotional Intelligence: An Analysis of United Methodist Clergy in Kentucky

Research on the emotional intelligence of United Methodist clergy in the Kentucky Annual Conference is being conducted utilizing the Emotional Quotient 2.0 (EQ-i 2.0) assessment. Over 20% of active clergy have been assessed thus far and several trends are becoming evident. Specifically, of interest are those clergy persons who have engaged in graduate-level theological education and those who have not. This research seeks to add to the scholarly dialogue on understanding the impact of theological education in the formation of clergy leadership.

Social Networks, Support, and Depressive Symptoms: Gender Differences among Clergy

This study extends social-psychological research on social networks and mental health by examining cross-gender differences in social integration and depression among United Methodist clergy in North Carolina. Using data from the fifth wave of the Clergy Health Initiative panel survey, we used cross-group models to examine the association of depressive symptoms and network in-degree, out-degree, and perceived social isolation among men (N = 1,145) and women (N = 535) clergy. The analysis reveals gendered differences in this association. Specifically, out-degree bore a significant negative relationship with depressive symptoms for men but not women. Feeling socially isolated had a significant positive association with depression in both men and women.

Relationships between Sabbath Observance and Mental, Physical, and Spiritual Health in Clergy

Keeping the Sabbath, that is, setting a day apart for rest and spiritual rejuvenation, has been related to better mental health and less stress in cross-sectional studies. However, for clergy, keeping Sabbath can be complicated by needing to work on Sundays and the round-the-clock nature of clergy work. Nevertheless, numerous studies demonstrating high depression rates in clergy populations suggest clergy need to attend to their mental health. Religious denomination officials interested in preventing depression in clergy may be tempted to recommend Sabbath-keeping, although recommending other forms of rest and rejuvenation, including connecting with others, is also possible. This study examined the relationships of Sabbath-keeping as well as multiple other forms of rest and rejuvenation (vacation, sleep, relaxing activities, and social support) to mental and physical health and spiritual well-being using survey data from 1316 United Methodist clergy. Appropriate regression analyses (logistic, linear, and Poisson) were used to determine which clergy were more likely to keep the Sabbath and examined the relationships between Sabbath-keeping and multiple well-being outcomes. Receiving more social support was strongly associated with Sabbath-keeping. Sabbath-keeping was not significantly related to mental or physical health, after adjusting for covariates such as social support, although Sabbath-keeping was significantly related to higher quality of life and spiritual well-being—the original purpose of Sabbath-keeping—in clergy. To adequately test whether Sabbath-keeping could promote mental health for clergy beyond other forms of rejuvenation, intervention studies are needed.

A 2-Year Holistic Health and Stress Intervention: Results of an RCT in Clergy

This study sought to determine the effect of a 2-year, multicomponent health intervention (Spirited Life) targeting metabolic syndrome and stress simultaneously. An RCT using a three-cohort multiple baseline design was conducted in 2010-2014. Participants were United Methodist clergy in North Carolina, U.S., in 2010, invited based on occupational status. Of invited 1,745 clergy, 1,114 consented, provided baseline data, and were randomly assigned to immediate intervention (n=395), 1-year waitlist (n=283), or 2-year waitlist (n=436) cohorts for a 48-month trial duration. The 2-year intervention consisted of personal goal setting and encouragement to engage in monthly health coaching, an online weight loss intervention, a small grant, and three workshops delivering stress management and theological content supporting healthy behaviors. Participants were not blinded to intervention. Trial outcomes were metabolic syndrome (primary) and self-reported stress and depressive symptoms (secondary). Intervention effects were estimated in 2016 in an intention-to-treat framework using generalized estimating equations with adjustment for baseline level of the outcome and follow-up time points. Log-link Poisson generalized estimating equations with robust SEs was used to estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) for binary outcomes; mean differences were used for continuous/score outcomes. Baseline prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 50.9% and depression was 11.4%. The 12-month intervention effect showed a benefit for metabolic syndrome (PR=0.86, 95% CI=0.79, 0.94, p<0.001). This benefit was sustained at 24 months of intervention (PR=0.88; 95% CI=0.78, 1.00, p=0.04). There was no significant effect on depression or stress scores. The Spirited Life intervention improved metabolic syndrome prevalence in a population of U.S. Christian clergy and sustained improvements during 24 months of intervention. These findings offer support for long-duration behavior change interventions and population-level interventions that allow participants to set their own health goals. This study is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov NCT01564719.

The Honeymoon is Over: Occupational Relocation and Changes in Mental Health among United Methodist Clergy

In this study we examine how the process of relocation affects the mental health of United Methodist clergy and the extent to which relocation is associated with changes in clergy perception of the workplace environment and feelings of self-efficacy. We analyzed data from a longitudinal survey of 1375 clergy, one quarter of whom experienced a move between the baseline survey in 2008 and the follow-up survey 2 years later. Contrary to expectations, we find that mental distress decreased for those who recently moved compared to those who had moved 2 years prior. We also find strong evidence of a “honeymoon effect.” Recently relocated clergy report higher levels of self-efficacy and higher workplace morale compared to those who do not relocate. This study underscores the importance of examining the short and longer-term impact of moving on mental distress and presses scholars to consider the ways in which, under certain circumstances, relocation may improve mental health.

The Glory of God is a Human Being Fully Alive: Predictors of Positive Versus Negative Mental Health Among Clergy

Clergy fulfill vital societal functions as meaning makers and community builders. Partly because of their important roles, clergy frequently encounter stressful situations. Further, studies suggest that clergy experience high rates of depression. Despite this, few studies have examined protective factors for clergy that may increase their positive mental health. We invited all United Methodist clergy in North Carolina to participate in a survey. Of church‐serving clergy, 85 percent responded (n = 1,476). Hierarchical multiple regression was used to assess the predictors of three positive and four negative mental health outcomes. The three sets of predictors were: demographics, which explained 2–10 percent of the variances; variables typically related to mental health (social support, social isolation, and financial stress), which explained 14–41 percent of the variances; and clergy‐specific variables, which explained 14–20 percent of the variances, indicating the importance of measuring occupation‐specific variables. Some variables (e.g., congregation demands) significantly related to both positive and negative mental health, whereas others (e.g., positive congregations, congregation support) significantly related primarily to positive mental health. In addition to their intervention implications, these findings support separate consideration for negative versus positive mental health.

Using Effort-Reward Imbalance Theory to Understand High Rates of Depression and Anxiety Among Clergy

The clergy occupation is unique in its combination of role strains and higher calling, putting clergy mental health at risk. We surveyed all United Methodist clergy in North Carolina, and 95% (n = 1,726) responded, with 38% responding via phone interview. We compared clergy phone interview depression rates, assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), to those of in-person interviews in a representative United States sample that also used the PHQ-9. The clergy depression prevalence was 8.7%, significantly higher than the 5.5% rate of the national sample. We used logistic regression to explain depression, and also anxiety, assessed using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. As hypothesized by effort-reward imbalance theory, several extrinsic demands (job stress, life unpredictability) and intrinsic demands (guilt about not doing enough work, doubting one's call to ministry) significantly predicted depression and anxiety, as did rewards such as ministry satisfaction and lack of financial stress. The high rate of clergy depression signals the need for preventive policies and programs for clergy. The extrinsic and intrinsic demands and rewards suggest specific actions to improve clergy mental health.

HEALTHY LEADERS: MULTILEVEL HEALTH PROMOTION CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIVERSE UNITED METHODIST CHURCH PASTORS

Community psychologists often work with institutions and leaders, such as clergy, to bring about social change. Studies finding high rates of chronic disease among clergy have called for the design of clergy health interventions. However, among clergy there is substantial diversity. We conducted four focus groups with a cross‐section of United Methodist clergy and one focus group each with female, local, young, and large‐sized church pastors. We compared themes from the specific versus broader focus groups. Findings are as follows: female pastors felt guilty for taking personal time and experienced pressure to prove themselves; local pastors reported financial strain and utilized a variety of interpersonal relationships; young pastors indicated child‐related stress but also greater interest in nutrition, exercise, and church‐based health promotion; and large‐sized church pastors expressed increased confidence in negotiating personal time and reported more sharing of pastoral duties. We organized themes by levels of the socioecological framework to guide intervention design.

Clergy Role Stress: Interactive Effects of Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict on Intrinsic Job Satisfaction

The present study examined relationships between role conflict, role ambiguity, and three facets of clergy job satisfaction: Relationships and Support, Denominational Involvement, and Intrinsic Aspects. Web survey data from 179 United Methodist clergy indicated that role ambiguity and role conflict had negative relationships with each of the three facets of job satisfaction, as well as with overall job satisfaction. Interactions between role conflict and ambiguity were not significant for overall job satisfaction or for two of the three facets, suggesting that the effects of role conflict and role ambiguity on these aspects of job satisfaction were linear and cumulative. However, the effects of role ambiguity and role conflict considered together were nonlinear and interactive for the Intrinsic Aspects facet of job satisfaction, indicating that when role ambiguity was low, the relationship between role conflict and intrinsic job satisfaction was not significant, whereas when role ambiguity was high, there was a significant negative relationship between role conflict and intrinsic job satisfaction.

Tailoring Health Programming to Clergy: Findings From a Study of United Methodist Clergy in North Carolina

Research indicating high rates of chronic disease among some clergy groups highlights the need for health programming for clergy. Like any group united by similar beliefs and norms, clergy may find culturally tailored health programming more accessible and effective. There is an absence of research on what aspects clergy find important for clergy health programs. We conducted 11 focus groups with United Methodist Church pastors and district superintendents. Participants answered open-ended questions about clergy health program desires and ranked program priorities from a list of 13 possible programs. Pastors prioritized health club memberships, retreats, personal trainers, mental health counseling, and spiritual direction. District superintendents prioritized for pastors: physical exams, peer support groups, health coaching, retreats, health club memberships, and mental health counseling. District superintendents prioritized for themselves: physical exams, personal trainers, health coaching, retreats, and nutritionists. Additionally, through qualitative analysis, nine themes emerged concerning health and health programs: (a) clergy defined health holistically, and they expressed a desire for (b) schedule flexibility, (c) accessibility in rural areas, (d) low cost programs, (e) institutional support, (f) education on physical health, and (g) the opportunity to work on their health in connection with others. They also expressed concern about (h) mental health stigma and spoke about (i) the tension between prioritizing healthy behaviors and fulfilling vocational responsibilities. The design of future clergy health programming should consider these themes and the priorities clergy identified for health programming.