Union Of European Football Associations Research Articles

Impact of the UEFA Nations League on competitive balance, competitive intensity, and fairness in European men’s national team football

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the multifaceted dimensions of sport promotion, development, and integrity within the context of men’s football in Europe. It specifically focuses on the impact of a newly introduced competition, the UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) Nations League (UNL), on these three dimensions. The study utilises a dataset comprising 1,058 games played over two distinct periods: 503 games from 2014–2016 (pre-UNL) and 555 games from 2018–2021 (UNL era). The primary areas of interest are competitive balance (CB) and competitive intensity (CI), measured at the intra-match (both CB and CI) and post-match (CB only) levels, and fairness. Regressions and statistical tests were conducted to explain the determinants of CB and compare CB and CI between both periods. The analysis reveals that CB deteriorated, primarily attributed to changing incentives for the strongest and weakest teams during Euro qualifying matches. By contrast, CI increased due to the UNL’s replacement of most friendly games. While recent literature has raised potential fairness issues due to the establishment of the UNL, findings of this study suggest that the integrity of national men’s football team competitions and games in Europe remained intact during this period. This article advances knowledge of CB and CI. Besides, it also provides empirical evidence that the UNL did not compromise the fairness of national men’s football team competitions and games in Europe. By bringing CB, CI, and fairness together, this study highlights the crucial role of sports organisations in promoting and developing their sport, while also safeguarding its integrity.

An Assessment on the Carbon Footprint of a Football Club—an Action Research from Theory to Practice

AbstractThere is a lack of academic literature that explores the evaluation of football club’s carbon footprints. To the best of the author’s knowledge, this study is the first study where the football’s club’s overall carbon footprints were assessed. This study’s main objectives were to measure the football club environmental impact and promote the reduction of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions for famous significant sports events such as the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) and The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) matches. The football club is a part of one of the biggest football clubs in Europe, which operates, manages, and maintains various facilities by assisting the football club in decision-making processes to identify the most relevant business engagement areas. The following research questions were considered: (a) What are the hotspots and the most significant contributors to GHG emissions of a football club? (b) How to improve emissions management within the stadium organization? (c) How to establish a carbon reduction and management plan? The researchers visited this stadium to collect data and interview managers of the football club. The GHG assessment results provide some relevant confirmation of the guidelines that emerged during the onsite visit. This study found that indirect emissions produced by a supporter’s transportation mode are equivalent to 38%, followed by energy consumption, accounting for 25% of the total GHG emissions. Specific future recommendations for sports organizations, such as (i) intermediate goal is to cut GHG emissions by at least 50% by 2030 and (ii) model scope 3 emissions and set scope 3 targets if scope 3 emissions account for 40% or more of their overall emissions, have emerged after this study.

The competitive balance of UEFA and CONMEBOL football leagues: On managing the number of teams in league design

AbstractThis article augments the literature on the analysis of competitive balance, encompassing its measurement, comparisons across leagues and seasons, and ramifications for league management. Central to our examination is the notion of competitive balance, which is intimately tied to the concentration concept. This concept can be depicted as a dual metric—capturing both inequality and the number of competing teams. Historically, its magnitude has been gauged using standardised measures of inequality and concentration. Among these, the Herfindahl–Hirschman index and its subsequent refinements stand out. We employ the distance‐to‐competitive‐balance index, which, contingent upon the metric space chosen, qualifies either as an inequality or concentration measure. Our analysis spans the 2009/2010 to 2018/2019 seasons for both the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL) championships in the pre‐COVID‐19 era. We discern a tangible and significant correlation between the competitive equilibrium of leagues and the performance metrics of national teams. Both the disparities in strengths of teams and the number of participating teams emerged as paramount variables shaping this competitive balance. Further, we delineate the elasticities of competitive balance relative to these determinants. Our insights bear implications for designing football championship structures and delineating sports policies; thus, they are valuable for relevant sports governing bodies and federations. The strategic decision to enlarge team count vis‐à‐vis curtailing discrepancies in team competencies is nuanced, varying across federations and confederations. The Big Five European leagues display heightened sensitivity to inequality factors (with interventions such as financial fair play, salary caps or revenue distribution yielding pronounced effects), whereas for CONMEBOL, elasticity in relation to team count holds greater significance.

Quality Criteria for Studies Assessing the Acute Effects of Heading: Results from a UEFA Expert Panel.

There is increasing concern regarding the effects of heading in football on brain health including cognitive, behavioural and neuromotor function, with research suggesting an association between repeated ball-head impacts and neurodegenerative disease. While longitudinal studies to determine the long-term consequences of heading are challenging, there have been short-term 'acute' studies conducted, with some studies lacking appropriate methodology to ensure valid results. The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)established a panel of experts to determine methodological recommendations for the conduct of studies that explore the acute effects of heading (defined as a single session of heading conducted either in a laboratory setting or following match play or a training session). The aim of this panel was to create quality criteria for acute heading studies that will form part of the eligibility assessment when applying for UEFAresearch funding (although the criteria can be applied to the conduct of acute heading research more widely). This process was deemed necessary to counter studies with poor methodological quality that used heading trials that did not accurately represent player exposure to ball-head impacts through football practice and match play (such as small sample sizes, unrealistically high heading exposure, and a lack of consideration of confounding variables). The panel identified core design decisions that authors should consider when designing and conducting acute heading research, with key methodological requirements for each domain pertaining to participants, heading trials, confounding variables, statistics and dependent/target variables and their measurement. After two rounds of reviews, the final list of quality criteria was agreed by the panel and will be applied to the next round of UEFAgrant applications.

Developing a ‘clarity of mind’: Exploring a behaviour-based approach to mental toughness development in international youth football

Mentally tough behaviors (MTbs) entail verbal or physical acts that allow athletes to engage their capacity to produce consistently high performances under pressure. However, researchers of mental toughness (MT) have typically focused on the characteristics that make an athlete mentally tough, rather than how these characteristics are developed through learning to, and reflecting on, the display of MTbs. Consequently, we explored the athlete MT development process within youth international football. Collaborating with a Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) National Association, age-group international players (n = 6), coaches (n = 6), support staff (n = 7), and parents (n = 6) were interviewed regarding MTbs, the specific contexts (e.g., training) that require MTbs, and how key personnel (e.g., coaches, parents, teammates) might help develop players’ MTbs in international youth football. Using thematic analysis, we found MT development to be a relational, multidimensional process, where players transacted with individuals (e.g., coaches) in their environment. These individuals’ behaviors (e.g., autonomy-supportive) influenced players’ propensity to engage in and reflect on contextually relevant MTbs, leading to MT understanding, development, and maintenance. We suggest organizations develop a common understanding of the MT development process and educate all relevant stakeholders regarding their role in supporting athletes to develop the capacity to perform consistently under pressure.Lay summary: We explored key stakeholders’ perceptions of mental toughness (MT) development in international youth football. We found players’ MT is developed via key relationships, with players encountering opportunities to display this capacity via mentally tough behaviors (MTbs). Players must reflect upon their display of MTbs to further develop and maintain MT.

Enforced Ostracism? Analysis of the International Sports Organizations’ Reactions to the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine

The Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022 triggered widespread reactions. The global call for the isolation of Russia and its collaborator Belarus has also involved the world of sport, leading to the expulsion of Russian and Belarusian athletes from international competitions. The decisions leading to the expulsion were analyzed from the perspective of their factors, timing, and the international sports organizations’ (ISOs) traditional approach to mixing sport and politics. During these developments, various stakeholders have been exerting pressure on the ISOs by voicing their expectations towards sanctioning Russia and even using the threat of boycott. Multiple Streams Framework has been employed in an attempt to understand the decision-making processes of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), demonstrating that external pressure has played the overriding role in the process leading to the isolation of Russia and Belarus in international sport, marking the continuation of the recent evolution of ISOs’ approach to the interconnection between politics and sport.

Club coefficients in the UEFA Champions League: Time for shift to an Elo-based formula

ABSTRACT One of the most popular club football tournaments, the UEFA Champions League, will see a fundamental reform from the 2024/25 season: the traditional group stage will be replaced by one league where each of the 36 teams plays eight matches. To guarantee that the opponents of the clubs are of the same strength in the new design, it is crucial to forecast the performance of the teams before the tournament as well as possible. This paper investigates whether the currently used rating of the teams, the UEFA club coefficient, can be improved by taking the games played in the national leagues into account. According to our logistic regression models, a variant of the Elo method provides a higher accuracy in terms of explanatory power in the Champions League matches. The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) is encouraged to follow the example of the FIFA World Ranking and reform the calculation of the club coefficients in order to avoid unbalanced schedules in the novel tournament format of the Champions League.

Legend of leagues: heterogeneity in the revenue structure of European national leagues

PurposeThe environmental characteristics of international football can vary significantly from one country to another. As a result, the economic and market possibilities and the objectives of each national league are very heterogeneous. This article aims to examine the differences in revenue structures amongst European national football leagues (n = 50) and cluster them based on these structures. It also investigates which revenue structure would be more effective for similar leagues, considering the previously mentioned varying environmental characteristics of international football.Design/methodology/approachThe study utilises a theoretical framework of business modelling, applied in a unique way to league organisers of national championships. Data on sports and business aspects were collected from sources such as the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Financial Benchmarking Reports, transfermarkt.de and related sources for the period 2015 to 2018. K-means cluster analysis, using the Euclidean distance approach, was employed to develop clusters based on revenue sources over a four-year average.FindingsThe paper presents the characteristics and year-to-year changes of nine developed clusters. Throughout the analysis, variables such as average overpayment and inequality between player values amongst leagues were prioritised. The study's practical implications can assist league organisers in enhancing the competitiveness of their leagues, supported by short case studies that provide illustrative examples.Originality/valueThe novelty of the current article lies in introducing innovative variables such as the variance of player value whilst focussing on meso-level analysis, providing a fresh contribution to the existing literature in the field for understanding revenue structures and performance in European national football leagues.

History of creation and reconstruction of the Grand Sports Arena of the Luzhniki stadium

Introduction. The paper presents the process of renovating the roof over the Grand Sports Arena (GSA) of the Luzhniki Stadium from its construction to the present day. It demonstrates the modifications in the roof over the GSA stands, including three reconstructions of the stadium, which were carried out for various reasons during the 65-year history of the stadium.Aim. To describe the process and peculiarities of erecting the roof over the arena stands and creating a stadium that meets the requirements of the International Football Federation (FIFA) for stadiums hosting the opening and final matches of the FIFA World Cup.Materials and methods. The study involved methods for creating a unique large-span steel roof of a dome type with the largest unsupported span (310 m) for structures of this class. The paper describes the process of designing and testing a large-size model and a specially made model in a wind tunnel to determine the snow and wind loads. The process of erecting the roof, assembling the outer support contour, and lifting it on the columns is shown in detail. The process of assembling the inner contour is described. Its perimeter accounts for about 600 m, and its weight is 4500 tf. After assembling, the inner contour was lifted to the design level at approximately 50 m within three days. After that, curved beams were installed between the outer support and inner contours with ring trusses in between. A translucent roof made of polycarbonate panels was installed on the dome frame for the first time in the construction practice of Russia. This was the second reconstruction of the roof. The first one was arranged for the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. The third reconstruction of the roof was carried out to meet the strict requirements of FIFA. The reconstruction involved dismantling old stands and building new ones. The roof over the stands became 17 meters closer to the field, and its area was increased to protect the spectators from atmospheric precipitation. Measures were taken to ensure the bearing capacity of the existing large-span roof during the stadium renovation.Results. The reconstruction of the Grand Sports Arena of the Luzhniki Stadium was developed designed and implemented. The reconstructed arena was recognized by UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) as one of the best stadiums in the world and received “Elite” qualification.Conclusion. The principles of reconstruction of a large-capacity stadium on the example of the renovated Grand Sports Arena of the Luzhniki Stadium can be used to meet the requirements of FIFA in other arenas with stands for at least 80,000 spectators.

Head movement direction in football - a field study on visual scanning activity during the UEFA-U17 and -U21 European Championship 2019

ABSTRACT Visual exploration (scanning) of one’s environment is a key aspect in team sports. Based on Gibson’s (1979) ecological approach of visual perception, this study aims to advance the understanding of scanning by focusing on the direction of head movements in football and its implications for subsequent on-ball actions. The video-based data analysis consisted of nine selected matches and 162 players of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) U17 and U21 European Championship 2019. The results indicate that the direction of the last scan prior to receiving the ball is related to the foot used for the first ball contact. This relationship was further analysed in view of the game context (direction of play and opponent pressure) and with information about the player’s dominant foot. The findings reveal a relationship between the direction of the last scan before receiving the ball and the direction the game is proceeded in. Further, when a player performs the last scan to the side of their dominant foot, the probability increases that their dominant foot is used for the subsequent first ball contact. Depending on the direction of the last scan, opponent pressure had various effects on the foot used for the first contact.

Additional substitutions in elite European football

In 2020, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) introduced a temporary rule amendment of two additional substitutions in regular time. In this study, we assess the impact of this rule change with regard to player relief, tactical influence by the coaches and the development of young players. Data were collected from 3652 matches from the top 5 leagues in the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) rankings and 659 UEFA club competition matches (Champions League and Europa League) in 2 different seasons (pre-rule amendment: 2018/2019 vs. post-rule amendment: 2020/2021), comparing leagues that introduced two additional substitutions with those that did not. The results show that with two additional substitutions, the reduction in player load was increased by 46%. Despite being used infrequently, the rule change resulted in 45% more substitutions and, therefore, greater tactical influence by the coaches. Furthermore, two additional substitutions benefit young players’ development with an 81% increase in playing time. While the aim of the temporary amendment to the laws of the game was achieved with the additional substitutions by compensating for the increased load on the players, coaches’ substitution behaviour shows potential for improvement.

Whose interests? Which solidarity? Challenges of developing a European Super League

ABSTRACT Since the 1990s, rumours of a European Super League (ESL), comprised of the major clubs from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, have mounted. According to these rumours, this new league would break away from the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Many clubs would operate outside the current European federative system, abandoning their national leagues and football federations. An ESL thus conceived would present a menacing alternative to the UEFA Champions League (UCL) and, depending on the format of the ESL, national competitions such as leagues and cups. In this article, we draw on literature in the fields of philosophy and sport law to identify legal and ethical challenges that would result from creating an ESL. Our goal is not to provide exhaustive analyses of the identified challenges. Rather, we aim to examine the challenges to uncover intersections among sport law, sport ethics, and European football.

European Super League: designing “new” football

Purpose The purpose of this study is to use design thinking principles to understand the failure of the ‘new’ European Super League, and also understand how it could be redesigned. Research methodology This case has been developed from secondary sources, including news reports, social media sites, annual reports and websites of the Union of European Football Associations and the European football clubs. This case was classroom-tested with post-graduate management students in a design thinking course in May 2021 at an Indian business school, S.P. Jain Institute of Management & Research, in Mumbai, India. Case overview/synopsis In April 2021, a new football league – the European Super League, is announced as a breakaway rebel league, in direct competition with United European Footballers Association's Champions League. It is backed by the top 12 European clubs and officials in European football, besides the US investment bank, JP Morgan. The new league is touted as one intended to save football. It is, however, denounced by fans and shunned almost universally. The league, which has been planned for the past three and half years, faces collapse. Why did the European Super League fail? How could the founders design a new league? Complexity academic level This case could be used in an undergraduate or MBA classroom or an executive education programme in a design thinking course. It can also be used to teach marketing courses such as marketing strategy, new product development and consumer behaviour.

An overview fair play regulation in England premier league: Accounting information for leverage and financial distress to conservatism

The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) has become an industry in recent decades that has attracted many investors. The UEFA issued a Financial Fair Play Regulation (FFPR) policy to control the financial condition of football clubs. This study aims to determine the effect of leverage and financial distress on applying the principle of conservatism to provide a sense of security to investors and creditors. It is quantitative research that uses purposive data from the football companies listed on the London Stock Exchange in 2011–2013. The results indicate that the level of leverage and financial distress positively affect the application of the conservatism principle. In conclusion, the higher level of debt and financial distress will increase the company’s applying the conservatism principle. A suggestion for further research is to test the theory against football leagues in other countries because football leagues in other countries may have different rules.

Police Use of Twitter During a Sporting Mega-Event

Abstract There exists a range of sporting mega-event security case studies from respective Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, International Association Football Federation (FIFA) World Cup, and Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Championships. This literature tends to focus on outlining the policing and physical security arrangements at respective Games and the social consequences of these. However, no studies have examined police use of social media at a mega-event. This article addresses this gap by analysing the Twitter activities of social media accounts from police forces and units within Glasgow and London during the Euro 2020 Finals. The article makes an empirical contribution to the mega-events and policing literature by identifying that the police used Twitter in five strategic ways: security spectacle, demonstration of effective partnership working, responsibilization of citizens, public feedback and reporting, and real-time crowd management. Such findings have important implications for the use of social media by police practitioners at future mega-events and for football policing.

Developing Coaches’ Knowledge of the Athlete–Coach Relationship Through Formal Coach Education: The Perceptions of Football Association Coach Developers

Developing high-quality athlete–coach (A–C) relationships improves both athlete performance and well-being. However, content relating to the A–C relationship has been underrepresented within coach education. The study evaluates how coaches completing the English Football Association’s Union of European Football Associations A and B licenses develop knowledge of the A–C relationship. It does so by drawing on the perspectives of those who design and deliver the courses. Semistructured interviews were completed with nine experienced Football Association coach developers alongside a document analysis of seven key course documents. Data were analysed through an inductive thematic analysis and five themes were generated: (a) coach developers understand that the A–C relationship is built on trust, care, and hard and soft interpersonal approaches; (b) the triad of knowledge impacts on the A–C relationship, not just interpersonal knowledge; (c) the A–C relationship is not meaningfully addressed in the formalised course content; (d) in situ visits provide an effective medium to develop knowledge of the A–C relationship; and (e) the assessment framework does not align with the formalised course content. Findings demonstrate, despite a diversification in content, the A–C relationship is introduced in a superficial manner. Future research should clarify the knowledge coaches require to develop high-quality A–C relationships within a high-performance footballing context.

Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Performance of Professional Football Athletes in Slovenia

This is the first study to examine the nutritional status of professional Slovenian football players. This study aimed to analyze the dietary intake of elite football players during their preparation phase of the season and to investigate whether there is a relationship between energy and macronutrient intake with body composition and physical performance. Twenty-three footballers completed a three-day dietary and physical activity diary and underwent body composition measurements via bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA). Fifteen participants also took part in the Cooper treadmill test to assess their physical performance in correlation with their nutritional intake. Football players had an energy intake that was significantly too low for their needs, reflecting low energy availability. The average carbohydrate (CHO) intake was below the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) recommendations, i.e., <4 g CHO/kg body weight (BW). Additionally, players had adequate intakes of protein and fat, and inadequate intakes of saturated fat, fiber, calcium and vitamin D. There was a positive correlation between protein intake and lean body mass. Additionally, a negative correlation was observed between body fat mass and carbohydrate intake as well as between performance with the percentage of energy intake from fat. Results of this study highlight what aspects of nutrition might be improved upon in professional football players to maximize performance, longevity and body composition of athletes, as well as the necessity of a nutritionist role in this process.

Integrity principle of sports competition: seeking certainty

The fall of 2021 in European football was marked by a pause in the Super League case: the Union of European Football Associations stopped disciplinary proceedings against the three clubs remaining in the status of organizers, and also canceled all mandatory payments to the confederation from the clubs that left the project. In a previous article, we looked at the UEFA Statutes and the UEFA Licensing and Financial Fair Play Regulations as possible sources of regulation that would have been violated by the emergence of new competition. However, the existence of UEFA regulation preventing the proliferation of organizers of football events on a European scale met with a possible obstacle from the economic-competitive guarantees provided in the provisions of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. At the moment, UEFA is preparing to consider the dispute in the instances of European justice. One of the key arguments on the part of UEFA may be the violation by the Super League organizing clubs of the principle of the integrity of the competition (the integrity of sports). This will additionally update the meaning of the principle for sports justice. However, UEFAs chances of a successful application of the principle seem low: this principle is too elastic and subjective, although it has been featured in the normative regulation of sports for a long time. In the present study, the author has analyzed all the disputes before the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) in which the principle of the integrity of sporting events was declared. The conclusions made confirm the complexity of a convincing appeal to the principle of any sports subject.

How the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) plays the game: communicate football's social responsibility

In this article, we seek to analyze how the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) communicates on the social network Facebook, considering social responsibility issues. Based on the idea that sport in general, and football, in particular, can play an essential role in social transformation, we try to understand whether football's governing body in Europe has used digital social networks to communicate actions aligned with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To achieve this objective, we use a mixed methodology, which determines the nature of the research as quali-quantitative with the use of the content analysis technique in a particular case study since it specifically analyzes the UEFA Facebook page and 257 publications made during the year 2021. Thus, we seek to understand if the institution plays the game concerning social responsibility and what contents and objectives stand out in this communication.

To comply or not to comply? How a UEFA wage‐to‐revenue requirement might affect the sport and managerial performance of soccer clubs

This paper evaluates the soccer clubs' compliance with a potential wage‐to‐revenue requirement by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and studies the effect on sport achievements resulting from sports and managerial skills. The empirical analysis uses data on first division teams of the Premier League, La Liga, Serie A, and Ligue 1, from seasons 2009/2010 to 2018/2019. We measure the teams' quality through the annual wages and use the wage‐to‐revenue ratio as a proxy measure for financial responsibility. Our results reveal that a more prudent financial performance, which is generally linked to good management practices, implies better sport performance and higher chances of qualifying for UEFA competitions.