Uninformative Cues Research Articles

Visual spatial attention to sexual stimuli

Visual events of high salience are thought to automatically attract visual processing resources to their location. Hence, we should expect that stimuli with sexual content should trigger such a movement of visual resources. However, evidence for such an allocation of visual resources is sparse and rather contradictory. In two studies we tested this hypothesis. Using a dot-probe task, Experiment 1 showed that targets occurring at the location of a briefly presented and uninformative cue (hence engaging “exogenous” attention) with sexual content were responded to more rapidly than those that occurred at the location of the neutral cue - thus confirming that sexual stimuli can attract automatic attention to their location. However, the effect was small and had a low level of reliability. No consistent gender differences were found. In Experiment 2, we examined whether this cueing effect remained even for low-visibility cues. No cueing effects were found, but the task manipulation also abolished the cueing effect for high visibility cues. While the study supports the notion of spatial allocation of visual resources to sexual stimuli, it highlights that this effect is not robust or reliable, and discusses the implications of this.

When stimulus variability accelerates the learning of task knowledge in adults and school-aged children.

Experience with instances that vary in their surface features helps individuals to form abstract task knowledge, leading to transfer of that knowledge to novel contexts. The current study sought to examine the role of this variability effect in how adults and school-aged children learn to engage cognitive control. We focused on the engagement of cognitive control in advance (proactive control) and in response to conflicts (reactive control) in a cued task-switching paradigm, and conducted four preregistered online experiments with adults (Experiment 1A: N = 100, Experiment 1B: N = 105) and 9- to 10-year-olds (Experiment 2A: N = 98, Experiment 2B: N = 97). It was shown that prior task experience of engaging reactive control makes both adults and 9- to 10-year-olds respond more slowly in a subsequent similar-structured condition with different stimuli in which proactive control could have been engaged. 9- to 10-year-olds (Experiment 2B) exhibited more negative transfer of a reactive control mode when uninformative cue and pre-target stimuli, which do not convey task-relevant information, were changed in each block, compared with when they were fixed. Furthermore, adults showed suggestive evidence of the variability effect both when cue and target stimuli were varied (Experiment 1A) and when uninformative cue and pre-target stimuli were varied (Experiment 1B). The collective findings of these experiments provide important insights into the contribution of stimulus variability to the engagement of cognitive control.

What is the Role of Spatial Attention in Statistical Learning During Visual Search?

Our ability to learn the regularities embedded in our environment is a fundamental aspect of our cognitive system. Does such statistical learning depend on attention? Research on this topic is scarce and has yielded mixed findings. In this preregistered study, we examined the role of spatial attention in statistical learning, and specifically in learned distractor-location suppression. This phenomenon refers to the finding that during visual search, participants are better at ignoring a salient distractor at a high-probability location than at low-probability locations - a bias persisting long after the probability imbalance has ceased. Participants searched for a shape-singleton target and a color-singleton distractor was sometimes present. During the learning phase, the color-singleton distractor was more likely to appear in the high-probability location than in the low-probability locations. Crucially, we manipulated spatial attention by having the experimental group focus their attention on the target's location in advance of the search display, using a 100%-informative spatial precue, while the control group was presented with a neutral, uninformative cue. During the subsequent test phase, the color-singleton distractor was equally likely to appear at any location and there were no cues. As expected, the results for the neutral-cue group replicated previous findings. Crucially, for the informative-cue group, interference from the distractor was minimal when attention was diverted from it (during learning) and no statistical learning was observed during test. Intertrial priming accounted for the small statistical-learning effect found during learning. These findings show that statistical learning in visual search requires attention.

The common origin of both oversimplified and overly complex decision rules

AbstractMany deviations from rational choice imply the neglect of important evidence and suggest the use of simple heuristics. In contrast, other deviations imply sensitivity to irrelevant evidence and suggest the use of overly complex rules. The current analysis takes two steps toward identifying the conditions that trigger these contradictory deviations from efficient reasoning. The first step involves a theoretical analysis. It shows that the contradictory deviations can be captured without assuming the use of rules of different complexity in different settings. Both deviations can be the product of a reliance on small samples of similar past experiences. This reliance on small samples triggers apparent overcomplexity when the optimal rule is simple, but more complex rules yield better outcomes in most cases; the opposite tendency, oversimplification, emerges when the optimal rule is complex, and simple rules yield better outcomes in most cases. The second step involves a preregistered experiment with 325 participants (Mechanical Turk workers). The experiment shows that human decision makers exhibit the pattern predicted by the reliance‐on‐small‐samples assumption. In the experiment, participants chose between the status quo and a risky alternative in a multi‐attribute decision with three binary cues. They used uninformative cues when this strategy was best in most cases yet ignored two informative cues when this strategy was best in most cases. In addition, describing the cues as recommendations given by three experts increased the tendency to follow the modal recommendation (even when reliance on only one of the experts was optimal), but people still behaved as though they relied on a small sample of past experiences.

Top-down attention control does not imply voluntary attention control for all individuals.

Top-down information is known to play an important role in the control of visual attention. Often, evidence for top-down attention control is also interpreted as evidence for voluntary attention control. However, this latter theoretical interpretation is not warranted because volition is typically defined in terms of a conscious feeling that prior intentions led to a subsequent action, but this aspect of performance has not been assessed in previous studies. Accordingly, the present study used the construct of "agency" within the context of the spatial cuing paradigm to examine the relation between top-down and voluntary attention control. The results of two experiments consistently showed using growth-curve modeling that standard manipulations of top-down information in the spatial cuing paradigm do not have the same effect on all participants. In particular, the present findings showed that a slight majority of individuals (~60%) exhibited the expected pattern in which they reported feeling more agency when they performed visual search with the aid of an informative (arrow or onset) cue than when they performed this task with an uninformative cue or without any cue at all. However, more importantly, these findings also showed that a substantial number of individuals (~40%) exhibited the opposite pattern in which they reported feeling more agency when they performed visual search with an uninformative cue or without any cue at all. We conclude that the relation between top-down and voluntary attention control is not straightforward and must be studied using methods that are sensitive to individual differences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Communication Misperceptions: Mispredicting the Outcomes of Interpersonal Interactions

We communicate with others constantly: in our work life, our family life, and beyond. However, emerging research suggests that these ubiquitous interpersonal communications are fraught with misperceptions. This symposium brings together novel research papers identifying communication misperceptions across various domains that are critical to interpersonal and organizational success such as interviews, conversations, contracts, and negotiations. We discuss the extent to which people rely on uninformative cues, and the misperceptions that arise when people attempt to reach agreements. In particular, the papers presented will show that people (1) overlook social forces such as responsiveness that promote connection in conversation, causing them to undervalue communication media that entail dialogue for connecting with others; (2) overestimate how helpful communication cues are for evaluating speakers’ abilities; (3) overestimate recipients’ subjective feeling of consent to undesirable agreements, which undermines their trust and organizational commitment; and (4) underestimate the normativity of negotiations and have exaggerated concerns about jeopardizing an agreement. Moreover, this set of papers shows the detrimental consequences of communication misperceptions, particularly for missed opportunities: We miss opportunities to form new and better connections, accurately evaluate others, as well as negotiate better terms and empower consent. Taken together, this symposium highlights the fraught nature of interpersonal communication, and points to avenues for improving communications. These papers underscore the importance of understanding and correcting these communication misperceptions in interpersonal and organizational contexts. People are insensitive to social forces that promote connection in conversation Presenter: Michael Kardas; Northwestern Kellogg School of Management Presenter: Nicholas Epley; U. Of Chicago How verbal, nonverbal, and prosodic cues mislead interpersonal inferences Presenter: Nicole Abi-Esber; Harvard Business School Presenter: Adam Mastroianni; Columbia Business School Presenter: Alison Wood Brooks; Harvard U. You knew what you were getting into, Honesty increases perceptions, but not feelings, of consent Presenter: Rachel Schlund; Cornell U. Presenter: Vanessa Bohns; Cornell U. I avoid because I care, Negotiation avoidance due to (inflated) concern about jeopardizing a deal Presenter: Einav Hart; George Mason U. Presenter: Julia Bear; Stony Brook U.-State U. of New York

When does “inhibition of return” occur in spatial cueing tasks? Temporally disentangling multiple cue-triggered effects using response history and conditional accuracy analyses

Abstract Research on spatial cueing has shown that uninformative cues often facilitate mean response time (RT) performance in valid- compared to invalid-cueing conditions at short cue-target stimulus-onset-asynchronies (SOAs), and robustly generate a reversed or inhibitory cueing effect at longer SOAs that is widely known as inhibition-of-return (IOR). To study the within-trial time course of the IOR and facilitation effects we employ discrete-time hazard and conditional accuracy analyses to analyze the shapes of the RT and accuracy distributions measured in two experimental tasks. Our distributional analyses show that (a) IOR is present only from ~160 ms to ~280 ms after target onset for cue-target SOAs above ~200 ms, (b) facilitation does not precede IOR, but co-occurs with it, (c) the cue-triggered motor response activation is selectively and actively inhibited before target onset, (d) the IOR effect consists of a facilitatory and an inhibitory component when compared to central cueing, (e) the addition of an extra central cue causes a temporary negative cueing effect in the conditional accuracy functions, and (f) the within-trial time course of IOR is not affected much by the task employed (detection or localization). We conclude that the traditional mean performance measures conceal crucial information on behavioral dynamics in spatial cueing paradigms.

Unique patterns of hearing loss and cognition in older adults' neural responses to cues for speech recognition difficulty.

Older adults with hearing loss experience significant difficulties understanding speech in noise, perhaps due in part to limited benefit from supporting executive functions that enable the use of environmental cues signaling changes in listening conditions. Here we examined the degree to which 41 older adults (60.56-86.25years) exhibited cortical responses to informative listening difficulty cues that communicated the listening difficulty for each trial compared to neutral cues that were uninformative of listening difficulty. Word recognition was significantly higher for informative compared to uninformative cues in a + 10dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) condition, and response latencies were significantly shorter for informative cues in the + 10dB SNR and the more-challenging + 2dB SNR conditions. Informative cues were associated with elevated blood oxygenation level-dependent contrast in visual and parietal cortex. A cue-SNR interaction effect was observed in the cingulo-opercular (CO) network, such that activity only differed between SNR conditions when an informative cue was presented. That is, participants used the informative cues to prepare for changes in listening difficulty from one trial to the next. This cue-SNR interaction effect was driven by older adults with more low-frequency hearing loss and was not observed for those with more high-frequency hearing loss, poorer set-shifting task performance, and lower frontal operculum gray matter volume. These results suggest that proactive strategies for engaging CO adaptive control may be important for older adults with high-frequency hearing loss to optimize speech recognition in changing and challenging listening conditions.

Remote measurement of spectral weighting in sound localization using virtual reality headsets

Unequal weighting of binaural information across frequency can reduce sensitivity in the presence of competing but uninformative cues (“binaural interference”), a potentially serious problem for listeners who use combined electric and acoustic (EAS) hearing. Here, we used virtual-reality techniques to measure spectral weighting functions (SWF) during localization of simulated EAS stimuli [see van Ginkel et al., JASA 145, 2445 (2019)]: low-frequency “acoustic” noise bands and high-frequency “electric” click trains. This study was conducted remotely at each participants’ location, using sanitized and calibrated research equipment (Oculus Quest 2 headsets and Sennheiser HD 280 Pro headphones) delivered by lab personnel. Sounds were presented with random binaural-cue jitter across seven components on each trial. SWFs were computed by statistical regression of localization responses onto binaural cue values. SWFs confirmed the dominance of 400–1000 Hz components reported previously [Stecker, Folkerts, & Stecker 2019(A), JASA 145:1720]. Introducing a gap between noise and click-train components increased weight on neighboring components, consistent with reduced interference in such conditions [van Ginkel et al., 2019]. Finally, presenting noises and click trains from competing locations reduced weight on non-target components for most but not all participants, a potential marker of susceptibility to binaural interference. [Work supported by NIH R01-DC016643, NIH T35-008757.]

Gamma oscillations modulate working memory recall precision

Working memory (WM)—the ability to keep information in mind for short periods of time—is linked to attention and inhibitory abilities, i.e., the capacity to ignore task-irrelevant information. These abilities have been associated with brain oscillations, especially parietal gamma and alpha bands, but it is yet unknown whether these oscillations also modulate attention and inhibitory abilities. To test this, we compared parietal gamma-transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) to alpha-tACS and to a non-stimulation condition (Sham) in 51 young participants. Stimulation was coupled with a WM task probing memory-based attention and inhibitory abilities by means of probabilistic retrospective cues, including informative (valid), uninformative (invalid) and neutral. Our results show that relative to alpha and sham stimulation, parietal gamma-tACS significantly increased working memory recall precision. Additional post hoc analyses also revealed strong individual variability before and following stimulation; low-baseline performers showed no significant changes in performance following both gamma and alpha-tACS relative to sham. In contrast, in high-baseline performers gamma- (but not alpha) tACS selectively and significantly improved misbinding-feature errors as well as memory precision, particularly in uninformative (invalid) cues which rely more strongly on attentional abilities. We concluded that parietal gamma oscillations, therefore, modulate working memory recall processes, although baseline performance may further influence the effect of stimulation.

Time-dependent inhibition of covert shifts of attention

Visual transients can interrupt overt orienting by abolishing the execution of a planned eye movement due about 90 ms later, a phenomenon known as saccadic inhibition (SI). It is not known if the same inhibitory process might influence covert orienting in the absence of saccades, and consequently alter visual perception. In Experiment 1 (n = 14), we measured orientation discrimination during a covert orienting task in which an uninformative exogenous visual cue preceded the onset of an oriented probe by 140–290 ms. In half of the trials, the onset of the probe was accompanied by a brief irrelevant flash, a visual transient that would normally induce SI. We report a time-dependent inhibition of covert orienting in which the irrelevant flash impaired orientation discrimination accuracy when the probe followed the cue by 190 and 240 ms. The interference was more pronounced when the cue was incongruent with the probe location, suggesting an impact on the reorienting component of the attentional shift. In Experiment 2 (n = 12), we tested whether the inhibitory effect of the flash could occur within an earlier time range, or only within the later, reorienting range. We presented probes at congruent cue locations in a time window between 50 and 200 ms. Similar to Experiment 1, discrimination performance was altered at 200 ms after the cue. We suggest that covert attention may be susceptible to similar inhibitory mechanisms that generate SI, especially in later stages of attentional shifting (> 200 ms after a cue), typically associated with reorienting.

Intact Goal-Driven Attentional Capture in Autistic Adults.

Background:Autistic individuals have been found to show increased distractibility by salient irrelevant information, yet reduced distractibility by information of personal motivational salience. Here we tested whether these prior discrepancies reflect differences in the automatic guidance of attention by top-down goals.Methods:Autistic (self-reported diagnoses, confirmed with scores on the Social Responsiveness Scale) and non-autistic adults, without intellectual disability (IQ > 80 on Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence), searched for a color-defined target object (e.g., red) among irrelevant color objects. Spatially uninformative cues, matching either the target color or a nontarget/irrelevant color, were presented prior to each display.Results:Replicating previous work, only target color cues reliably captured attention, delaying responses when invalidly versus validly predicting target location. Crucially, this capture was robust for both autistic and neurotypical participants, as confirmed by Bayesian analysis. Limitations: While well powered for our research questions, our sample size precluded investigation of the automatic guidance of attention in a diverse group of autistic people (e.g. those with a range of cognitive abilities).Conclusions:Our findings imply that key mechanisms underlying the automatic implementation of top-down attentional goals are intact in autism, challenging theories of reduced top-down control.

Language learning as uncertainty reduction: The role of prediction error in linguistic generalization and item-learning

Discriminative theories frame language learning as a process of reducing uncertainty about the meaning of an utterance by discriminating informative from uninformative cues via the mechanisms of prediction error and cue competition. Previous work showed that discriminative learning is affected by the order in which information is presented during language learning. Specifically, learning suffixes, where complex stems precede affixes, promotes better generalization than prefixing, which tends to promote better item-learning instead. We explored this in two large-scale web-based artificial language learning experiments with adult learners (total N = 434), as well as two computational simulations implementing a discriminative learning model. While we did not find an overall benefit of suffixing over prefixing in generalization, consistent with our theoretical and computational predictions, we found that participants in the prefix condition were unable to discriminate between frequent, but uninformative cues and low-frequency, informative cues. This resulted in them being more likely to show incorrect overgeneralization of that feature for low frequency test items than participants in the suffix condition. We did not find a benefit of prefixing in item learning (although there was overall better item-learning of low type-frequency items), which we discuss in terms of the methodological limitations of our empirical paradigm. Taken together, these results underline the crucial role prediction error plays in learning linguistic generalization, and have implications for how generalization interacts with item-learning.

Automatic capture of attention by flicker

Visual motion captures attention, but little is known about the automaticity of these effects. Here, we tested if deviant flicker frequencies, as one form of motion, automatically capture attention. Observers searched for a vertical target among tilted distractors. Prior to the target display, a cue array of sinusoidally modulating (flickering) annuli, each surrounding one location of the subsequent target(-plus-distractors) display was presented for variable durations. Annuli either flickered all at 1 Hz (neutral condition, no-singleton cue), or a single annulus flickered at a unique frequency of 5 Hz, 10 Hz, or 15 Hz. The location of this singleton-frequency cue was uncorrelated with target location. Thus, we could measure benefits (target at cued location) and costs (target ≠ cued location) for cues of different frequencies and durations. The results showed that deviant flicker frequencies capture attention, as we observed benefits and costs, falsifying that nonspatial filtering accounted for the cueing effect. In line with automatic capture, cueing was effective in singleton (Experiment 1) and nonsingleton search tasks (Experiment 2), and is thus not dependent on (“top-down”) singleton detection mode. Moreover, analysis of results ruled out trial-by-trial “swapping” of flicker frequencies from preceding target to subsequent distractor locations. Results also revealed increasing cueing effects with higher cue flicker frequency and longer duration. This indicates a significantly longer period of automatic capture by sinusoidal flicker than the typical inhibition of return observed around 250 ms after the onset of uninformative static or single-transient cues.

Choice-dependent cross-modal interaction in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats

Cross-modal interaction (CMI) could significantly influence the perceptional or decision-making process in many circumstances. However, it remains poorly understood what integrative strategies are employed by the brain to deal with different task contexts. To explore it, we examined neural activities of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of rats performing cue-guided two-alternative forced-choice tasks. In a task requiring rats to discriminate stimuli based on auditory cue, the simultaneous presentation of an uninformative visual cue substantially strengthened mPFC neurons' capability of auditory discrimination mainly through enhancing the response to the preferred cue. Doing this also increased the number of neurons revealing a cue preference. If the task was changed slightly and a visual cue, like the auditory, denoted a specific behavioral direction, mPFC neurons frequently showed a different CMI pattern with an effect of cross-modal enhancement best evoked in information-congruent multisensory trials. In a choice free task, however, the majority of neurons failed to show a cross-modal enhancement effect and cue preference. These results indicate that CMI at the neuronal level is context-dependent in a way that differs from what has been shown in previous studies.

Reactive saccade adaptation boosts orienting of visuospatial attention

Attention and saccadic eye movements are critical components of visual perception. Recent studies proposed the hypothesis of a tight coupling between saccadic adaptation (SA) and attention: SA increases the processing speed of unpredictable stimuli, while increased attentional load boosts SA. Moreover, their cortical substrates partially overlap. Here, we investigated for the first time whether this coupling in the reactive/exogenous modality is specific to the orienting system of attention. We studied the effect of adaptation of reactive saccades (RS), elicited by the double-step paradigm, on exogenous orienting, measured using a Posner-like detection paradigm. In 18 healthy subjects, the attentional benefit—the difference in reaction time to targets preceded by informative versus uninformative cues—in a control exposure condition was subtracted from that of each adaptation exposure condition (backward and forward); then, this cue benefit difference was compared between the pre- and post-exposure phases. We found that, the attentional benefit significantly increased for cued-targets presented in the left hemifield after backward adaptation and for cued-targets presented in the right hemifield after forward adaptation. These findings provide strong evidence in humans for a coupling between RS adaptation and attention, possibly through the activation of a common neuronal pool.

Rescorla-Wagner Models with Sparse Dynamic Attention.

The Rescorla-Wagner (R-W) model describes human associative learning by proposing that an agent updates associations between stimuli, such as events in their environment or predictive cues, proportionally to a prediction error. While this model has proven informative in experiments, it has been posited that humans selectively attend to certain cues to overcome a problem with the R-W model scaling to large cue dimensions. We formally characterize this scaling problem and provide a solution that involves limiting attention in a R-W model to a sparse set of cues. Given the universal difficulty in selecting features for prediction, sparse attention faces challenges beyond those faced by the R-W model. We demonstrate several ways in which a naive attention model can fail explain those failures and leverage that understanding to produce a Sparse Attention R-W with Inference framework (SAR-WI). The SAR-WI framework not only satisfies a constraint on the number of attended cues, it also performs as well as the R-W model on a number of natural learning tasks, can correctly infer associative strengths, and focuses attention on predictive cues while ignoring uninformative cues. Given the simplicity of proposed alterations, we hope this work informs future development and empirical validation of associative learning models that seek to incorporate sparse attention.

Attention in visually typical and amblyopic children.

Amblyopia is a cortical visual disorder caused by unequal visual input to the brain from the two eyes during development. Amblyopes show reduced visual acuity and contrast sensitivity and abnormal binocularity, as well as more “global” perceptual losses, such as figure-ground segregation and global form integration. Currently, there is no consensus on the neural basis for these higher-order perceptual losses. One contributing factor could be that amblyopes have deficiencies in attention, such that the attentional processes that control the selection of information favor the better eye. Previous studies in amblyopic adults are conflicting as to whether attentional deficits exist. However, studies where intact attentional ability has been shown to exist were conducted in adults; it is possible that it was acquired through experience. To test this hypothesis, we studied attentional processing in amblyopic children. We examined covert endogenous attention using a classical spatial cueing paradigm in amblyopic and visually typical 5- to 10-year old children. We found that all children, like adults, independently of visual condition, benefited from attentional cueing: They performed significantly better on trials with an informative (valid) cue than with the uninformative (neutral) cue. Response latencies were also significantly shorter for the valid cue condition. No statistically significant difference was found between the performance of the amblyopic and the visually typical children or between dominant and nondominant eyes of all children. The results showed that covert spatial attention is intact in amblyopic and visually typical children and is therefore not likely to account for higher-order perceptual losses in amblyopic children.

Probing early attention following negative and positive templates.

In visual search tasks, cues indicating the upcoming distractor color can benefit search performance compared with uninformative cues. However, benefits from these negative cues are consistently smaller than benefits from positive cues (cuing target color), even when both cues are equally informative. This suggests that using a negative template is less effective than using a positive template. Here, we contrast the early attentional effects of negative and positive templates using the letter probe technique. On most trials, participants searched for a shape-defined target after receiving a positive, negative, or neutral color cue. On occasional probe trials, letters briefly appeared on the search items, and participants reported as many letters as possible. Examining the proportion of letters reported on potential targets versus distractors provided a snapshot of attentional allocation at the time of the probe. Across probes at 100, 250, and 400 ms, participants recalled more letters on target-colored objects than letters on distractor-colored objects following both negative and positive cues. These cuing benefits on probe report trials were larger at later probe times than early probe times, indicating both types of cues became more effective across time. Importantly, negative cue probe benefits were consistently smaller than positive cue benefits. Finally, following an extremely short probe (25 ms), we found no RT benefit following negative cues as well as no evidence that negatively cued items capture attention. These results help explain the previously reported differences in RT benefit following positive and negative cues, and support the idea of early active attentional suppression.

The roles of relevance and expectation for the control of attention in visual search.

Representations of target-defining features (attentional templates) control the allocation of attention during visual search. We investigated whether template-guided attentional selectivity is sensitive not only to the relevance of visual features, but also to expectations about their probability. Search displays could contain a target in an expected (80%) or unexpected (20%) color. They were preceded by spatially uninformative cues that matched either the expected or unexpected target color. These color cues attracted attention, reflected by behavioral spatial cueing effects and by cue-elicited N2pc components obtained via EEG measured during task performance. Critically, these attentional capture effects were identical for both color cues, suggesting that preparatory attentional templates only reflect relevance, and are insensitive to expectations about target color probabilities. In contrast, RTs and N2pc components to search targets in the unexpected color were delayed, showing that expectations modulated the speed of attentional target selection within search displays. This dissociation between the effects of relevance and expectation on attentional preparation versus target selection suggests that these 2 parameters for attentional control are represented differently. Task relevance is likely to be specified at the level of individual features, whereas expectations could be represented in an object-based fashion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).