Water Distribution Uniformity Research Articles

Assessing Design of Drip Emitters by Evaluating Hydraulic and Manufacturing Performance of Online Drip Emitters

The efficiency of drip irrigation is closely influenced by the accuracy of its design, particularly the hydraulic and manufacturing performance of the emitters. This study investigates the hydraulic performance and flow variation of 8 litres per hour (lph) drip emitters. Discharge rates for 100 emitters were measured at a pressure of 1 kg/cm² to determine the manufacturer's coefficient of variation and the flow variation due to hydraulic factors. The relationship between pressure and discharge was modelled using power function regression, demonstrating a strong correlation between predicted and observed emitter discharge rates, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.56 lph. A design chart was derived from this model, illustrating the relationship between input pressure at the head end and output pressure at the tail end of the system. The manufacturing coefficient of variation for the 100 emitters was found to be 0.0521, classifying the emitters as "good" according to manufacturing standards. The study provides important understandings for designers aiming to create efficient drip irrigation systems and effective water management strategies. By addressing both hydraulic and manufacturing variations, the study confirms that it is possible to achieve more uniform water distribution, enhance crop yield, and optimize resource utilization.

Approximation of the Pressure-discharge Curve in Inline Drip Irrigation System

The efficiency of drip irrigation systems depends directly on the uniformity of water discharge from emission devices. Ideally, all emitters should discharge equal amounts of water, but variations occur due to hydraulic and manufacturing factors. This study established the pressure-discharge relationship curve and determined emitter flow variation caused by the hydraulic and the manufacturer’s coefficients of variation for 2 and 4 lph inline emitters. The power exponent and constant of the pressure-discharge curve were determined by measuring the emitter flow rates at operating pressures ranging from 0.2 to 3.0 kg/cm². The emitter flow rates of 100 emitters were measured at an operating pressure of 1.0 kg/cm² to determine the manufacturing coefficient (Vm) and emitter flow variation (qvar(m)). The discharge exponent was found to be 0.46 for both emitter flow rates, with proportionality constants of 0.692 for 2 lph and 1.387 for 4 lph emitters respectively. The results showed a strong correlation between pressure and flow rate, with RMSE values of 0.51 and 0.34 lph, and coefficients of determination of 0.988 and 0.991 for 2 and 4 lph emitters, respectively. High manufacturing precision was indicated by low Vm values of 0.0491 for 2 lph and 0.055 for 4 lph emitters, while qvar(m) values were 0.261 for 2 lph and 0.283 for 4 lph emitters. Total coefficient of variation (Vq) values were 0.1 for 2 lph and 0.14 for 4 lph emitters, with total emitter flow variations (qvar) of 0.29 for 2 lph and 0.39 for 4 lph emitters. The study established the pressure-discharge curve for inline drip irrigation systems, emphasizing the critical relationship between pressure and flow rate. The derived chart from pressure discharge relationship is a valuable tool for estimating emitter flow variation due to hydraulic variation within the same subunit. Precise manufacturing and effective management of hydraulic variations are essential for ensuring uniform water distribution, optimizing drip irrigation systems, and ultimately enhancing crop yield and resource utilization.

Study on the application of atomized corona discharge combined with screen electrode in dust collection

This paper presents the design of a novel atomized corona discharge coupled screen electrode dust collector, which integrates electrostatic capture and wet electrostatic dust removal technologies. The upper part of the dust collector features an atomized corona discharge electrode utilizing a threaded-wire hole design with uniform water distribution. This design effectively addresses the issue of electrode fatness that may arise from uneven distribution of the discharge electrode. In contrast, the lower part of the collector is equipped with four side-by-side silk screen electrodes, which serve to expand the dust collection area, facilitate secondary particle capture, and consequently enhance dust removal efficiency. The study delves into a detailed analysis of the impact of various parameters on discharge characteristics and dust removal efficiency, culminating in the identification of optimal parameters.

Distribution and Variation of Soil Water and Salt before and after Autumn Irrigation

Autumn irrigation is a key measure for alleviating soil salinity and promoting sustainable agricultural development in the Hetao Irrigation district; however, only a part of farmland is irrigated in autumn during the non-growth period of crops, which leads to the redistribution of soil water and salt between autumn-irrigated land (AIL) and adjacent non-autumn-irrigated land (NAIL) after autumn irrigation. To explore the distribution and variation of soil water and salt in different positions of AIL and NAIL after local autumn irrigation and reveal the interaction range between AIL and NAIL, field experiments were carried out for two years in typical test areas. The results showed that compared with non-autumn irrigation, autumn irrigation improved the distribution uniformity of soil water and salt profiles in both horizontal and vertical directions; after autumn irrigation, the water content of the soil at the nearest sampling point to the boundary in the AIL increased the least, but the desalination rate was the greatest, while the water and salt contents of the soil within 45 m from the sampling points to the boundary in the NAIL both increased significantly. NAIL received the drainage of AIL and made the groundwater level after the rise in AIL fell quickly back, but unreasonable autumn irrigation caused the groundwater level of AIL to remain at a high level before freezing, exacerbating the risk of groundwater carrying salts to the surface soil during the freezing and thawing period, detrimental to the growth of crops in the next spring. The research results are of great significance to the rational use of farmland water resources and the improvement of soil salinization in cold and dry areas.

Laser Leveler Maximized Chickpea's Growth and Yield Traits (Cicer arietinum L.)

Since the introduction of laser leveler for land leveling in agriculture, farming community has been discussing the comparative role of different leveling implements in enhancement of crop growth and yield. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the performance of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) crop under three leveling implements, including planker, iron blade and laser leveler. The research was carried out at the “Students’ Experimental Farm” of the Department of Agronomy, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Sindh, Pakistan, during winter season of 2021-22. The field experiment was thrice replicated in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD, factorial) on a net area of the plot (9 m2) per replication of each treatment, a total of 81 m2 per treatment. The results showed that land leveled under T3 (Laser leveler) resulted maximum growth and yield traits such as days to 50% germination (18.0), days to 50% flowering (47.53), days to 50% pod formation (77.53), plant height (72.63 cm), pods plant-1 (71.8), seed index (193.33 g), biological yield (4226.66 kg ha-1), grain yield (2550.0 kg ha-1) and harvest index (59.64 %), followed by T1 = Leveling with planker. While the minimum results recorded in T2 = Leveling with iron blade for all parameters. Therefore, land should be leveled with laser leveler to achieve the higher seed (grain) yield per unit area because it ensures uniform distribution of water, fertilizer, and ease in field operations.

Light‐assisted drying (LAD): A new process for producing an amorphous trehalose preservation matrix for the storage of biologics

AbstractThe requirement for temperature‐controlled storage can be challenging and expensive for the transportation and storage of biologics. Light‐assisted drying (LAD) is a new processing technique to prepare biologics for storage in a trehalose amorphous solid matrix at ambient temperatures. Samples are illuminated with near‐infrared laser light to speed dehydration. Previous work has shown LAD can prepare small‐volume (40 μL) samples, but the feasibility of applying LAD to larger samples remains unexplored. Here, LAD is applied to large‐volume samples (250 μL). Samples of a trehalose solution with an embedded protein were LAD processed and stored for 1 month. The end moisture contents of samples were determined after processing and storage. Thermal histories were monitored to determine optimal drying times. The trehalose matrix was characterized using polarized light imaging and Raman spectroscopy. Karl‐Fischer (KF) titration was used to measure the water content. The end moisture contents and thermal histories show high repeatability for LAD processing. Polarized light imaging demonstrates that the trehalose matrix was resistant to crystallization. Raman spectroscopy indicates uniform water distribution and KF titration reveals a low average water content (2.5%). LAD can stabilize large‐volume samples for dry‐state storage at ambient temperatures and offers a potential solution for cold‐chain storage challenges.

Characterisation of psyllium husk with different sizes and their effects on gel properties of surimi

SummaryPsyllium husk has attracted increasing interest in food applications due to its well‐known health benefits. Size reduction is an important mechanical operation used to tailor the functional properties of materials. In this study, the physicochemical properties and colloidal stability of the PHPs with different sizes were characterised by particle size distribution, zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) and X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Furthermore, the size effects of psyllium husk on surimi gel properties were investigated in terms of the gel strength, water‐holding capacity (WHC) and water distribution. The results found that milling changed the monosaccharide composition and increased the diffraction intensity of psyllium husk powder (PHP) without disrupting the β‐glycosidic linkages. Furthermore, the XPS results suggested that smaller samples showed more exposed surface functional groups. The PHP3 group with average size of d (0.5) = 259.50 μm exhibited the highest absolute zeta potential. The viscosity and zeta potential of PHP correlated positively and negatively with the gel strength of surimi, respectively. Moreover, the micronized PHP also contributed to the increase in immobilised water content and uniform water distribution in surimi gels. The high viscosity and colloidal stability of psyllium husk (PHP3 group) contributed to the improved mechanical properties of surimi gels. This work provides a valuable reference for the potential use of psyllium husk in quality improvement of surimi products through size control.

Interfacial engineering method to regulate the performances of bilayer emulsions co-stabilized by casein/butyrylated dextrin nanoparticles and chitosan

In present study, bilayer emulsions with different interfacial structures stabilized by casein/butyrylated dextrin nanoparticles (CDNP), chitosan (CS) and chitosan nanoparticles (CSNP) were prepared to overcome the limitations of conventional emulsions. The effects of chitosan morphology and incorporation sequences on the bilayer emulsions were examined. Bilayer emulsions prepared with CDNP as the inner layer and CS/CSNP as the outer layer were observed to have smaller droplet sizes (1.39 ± 86.74 um and 1.45 ± 7.87 um). Bilayer emulsions prepared with CDNP as the inner layer and CS as the outer layer exhibited the lowest creaming index (2.38 %) after 14 days of storage, indicating excellent stability. Furthermore, bilayer emulsion prepared with CDNP as the inner layer and CS as the outer layer also exhibited a uniform water distribution, excellent protein oxidative stability, and uniformly distributed droplets by the measurement of Low-field NMR, intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence and laser confocal laser scanning microscopy. These results indicated that the study provided a theoretical basis for the development and design of bilayer emulsions with different interfacial structures. This study also provides a new material for the preparation of delivery systems that protect biologically active compounds. Bilayer emulsions are promising for applications in traditional and manufactured food products.

Performance assessment of furrow irrigation in two different soil textures under high rainfall and field slope conditions

Furrow irrigation systems have been widely evaluated around the world. However, there is no national data indicating how efficient furrow irrigation is under Uruguayan conditions. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the performance of a system of furrow irrigation in two different soils texture. Seventeen irrigation events were analyzed in sugar-cane cultivation in northern Uruguay during 2016-17 and 2017-18 irrigation seasons. The water advance and recess curves were determined; flow rate during irrigation and runoff were monitored. The maximum furrow length studied was 100 m and the average slope was 0.24%. Application efficiencies in both types of soils were observed above 75%. These field data were compared with data simulated by the WinSRFR model, where high correlations were observed in the results of water application efficiency, distribution uniformity and runoff. These first results encourage to continue working in the efficient use of water, not only thinking about a better use of the resource but also in less loss by run-off, and therefore, less possibility of contamination and lower cost of energy and labor.

Новые отечественные интраокулярные линзы. Устойчивость к процессам биодеградации в сравнении с зарубежными аналогами

Relevance. Due to the high demand for import substitution, the prospect of assessing the long-term results of implantation of domestic models of intraocular lenses (IOL) will determine their place among a wide range of models offered by modern manufacturers in our country and abroad. Purpose. To evaluate, in an in-vitro experiment on aging modeling, the resistance of new domestic IOLs to biodegradation processes in comparison with foreign analogues. Material and methods. 3 IOLs of the following models were taken: domestic IOLs made of hydrophobic acrylic: Citrine, Citrine TT, Citrine Action; domestic hydrophilic acrylic Aquamarine IOLs. Foreign hydrophobic acrylic IOLs of the AcrySof SN60AT model and hydrophilic IOLs of Rumex rAqua-4 were taken as reference. Before the experiment, the optical parameters of the studied IOLs were measured: optical power, modulation transmission function (MTF), Strel number. The induction of glistening was carried out as follows: IOLs immersed in a BSS solution were placed in an oven foR²4 hours with a temperature of 45 °С. Further, cooling was carried out to 37 °С foR².5 hours. IOL photofixation was performed at 80-fold magnification with an assessment of the degree of glistening. Optical parameters were repeatedly measured. Results. Glistening was not detected in Aquamarine IOL and Rumex rAqua-4. The 2nd and higher degree of glistening was not detected in any model of hydrophobic IOLs. The optical strength of all the studied IOLs changed in the range from 0.23 to 1.6%. MTF changes ranged from 0 to 3.7%. The number of Strel has changed in the range from 0 to 8.5%. The absence of glistening in hydrophilic IOLs can be explained by a more uniform distribution of water in the material. Differences in the degree of glistening in hydrophobic IOL models may be due to differences in production methods. The revealed changes in optical parameters are insignificant and do not exceed the limits of state standards. Conclusion. Domestic IOLs represent a worthy competition to foreign models, as they have advantages in terms of the availability of high-quality IOLs of aspherical design and a reduced degree of susceptibility to glistening. Key words: domestic intraocular lenses, hydrophobic acrylic, hydrophilic acrylic, glistening, inducing glistening, modeling of IOL aging

Effect of liquid nitrogen spray quick-freezing technology on the quality of bamboo shoots, Dendrocalamus brandisii from Yunnan Province, China

This study explored the effects of liquid nitrogen spray quick-freezing (LNF) on the quality of fresh bamboo shoots. The results showed that the low temperature damaged bamboo shoots and caused a loss of nutrients after freezing. Notably, liquid nitrogen spray quick-freezing technology significantly improved the freezing efficiency and quality of the sample compared with the refrigerator freezing at −20 °C. The bamboo shoots that underwent LNF at −80 °C (LNF-80 °C) suggested the best results, with a 92.73% reduction in passing the zone of maximum ice crystal formation time, 60.23% reduction in thawing loss, 79.32% increase in hardness and 33.61% decrease in peroxidase activity compared that of refrigerator freezing at −20 °C. On the nutrients, the total amino acid content in the LNF-80 °C bamboo shoots (133.31 mg/100 g) increased by 25.50% compared with that in bamboo shoots that were slowly frozen (835.24 mg/100 g). Furthermore, the LNF-80 °C group samples had the most uniform water distribution, and the microstructure of this sample was the least damaged by ice crystals. These results show that LNF technology has great potential to improve the quality of frozen fruits and vegetables.

Performance of a Drip Irrigation System under the Co-Application of Water, Fertilizer, and Air

The co-application of water, fertilizer, and air is a new water-saving irrigation method based on drip irrigation technology, which can effectively alleviate the phenomenon of soil rhizosphere hypoxia, improve water and fertilizer utilization efficiency, and inhibit the clogging of irrigation equipment in drip irrigation systems. The performance of drip irrigation systems is one of the important factors affecting the effectiveness of the co-application of water, fertilizer, and air. However, the impact of factors such as the aeration method, fertilization device, and working parameters on the performance of drip irrigation systems for the co-application of water, fertilizer, and air is still unclear. Therefore, based on two typical aeration methods, i.e., micro-nano and Venturi aeration, the performance of a drip irrigation system under the co-application of water, fertilizer, and air was studied by comparing and analyzing the effects of different aeration methods, working pressures of the drip irrigation system, and the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of fertilizer irrigation on the spatial distribution uniformity of water, fertilizer, and air in the drip irrigation pipeline network. The results showed that the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of fertilization irrigation had no significant impact on system performance, while the working pressure significantly affected system performance. Compared with the effective effect of Venturi aeration on system performance, micro-nano aeration can significantly affect drip irrigation system performance and effectively improve drip irrigation system performance. The micro-nano-aerated drip irrigation system with the co-application of water, fertilizer, and air under a working pressure of 0.1 MPa has better system performance. The research results are of great significance for revealing the mechanism underlying the impact of the co-application of water, fertilizer, and air on the performance of drip irrigation systems and constructing efficient drip irrigation technology for the co-application of water, fertilizer, and air.

Improving the texture attributes of squid meat (sthenoteuthis oualaniensis) with slight oxidative and phosphate curing treatments

This study aimed to improve the pasty texture of squid meat by oxidative and phosphate curing (OPC) treatment, and elucidate the underlying mechanism. The shear force, springiness, weight gain, water-holding capacity (WHC), color and sensory evaluation of squid meat samples treated with a mild OPC approach (OPC_2, 10 mM H2O2 solution with complex phosphate solution) were significantly improved. However, the samples subjected to over-oxidized (20 and 30 mM H2O2 solution with complex phosphate solution) treatment did not obtain favorable outcomes. Microstructure analysis revealed that muscle fibers aggregated after moderate OPC treatments, leading to an increased spacing between muscle fiber bundles. This gap facilitated a more uniform distribution and restriction of water, according to low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) results. The results from in vitro simulated oxidation of myofibrillar proteins (MPs) demonstrated that increased H2O2 led to formation of carbonyl groups and decreased sulfhydryl groups, and even secondary structure changes, according to fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Particle size, zeta potential and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacryl amide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) results showed that oxidation caused protein aggregation into larger molecules. This study presents a novel approach to improve pasty texture of squid meat.

ВВЭР-1000 ЯДРОЛЫҚ РЕАКТОРЫНДАҒЫ ЖЫЛУФИЗИКАЛЫҚ ПРОЦЕСТЕРДІ КОМПЬЮТЕРЛІК МОДЕЛЬДЕУ

The priority use of water-water reactors in the nuclear power industry is due to their advantages. Water is ideally suited as a moderator and refrigerant, providing compactness, high power and simple reactor design. Water-water reactors have high resistance and self-regulation due to the negative temperature coefficient of reactivity. Their activity is caused by short-lived nuclides, which facilitates biological protection and access to equipment. Water effectively removes heat. However, there are also disadvantages: high neutron absorption by water, the requirement of uniform distribution of water, corrosion activity, expensive cleaning system and temperature limitation. An increase in unit power is possible due to the equalization of heat generation in the core. This requires an accurate thermohydraulic calculation. As a result of the study, a theoretical thermohydraulic calculation of heat transfer in the heat - generating set of the VVER-1000 reactor was obtained for the weighted average and maximum values of heat release in the heat-generating set. Computer simulation of heat transfer was also carried out for the distribution of moderately loaded energy in the heat-generating set. The results obtained were compared and analyzed. As a result of the calculation, the distribution graph and temperature field of the heat-releasing element of the coolant, fuel and reactor in the shell of the VVER-1000 heat-releasing kit were obtained.

Study on Self-Humidification in PEMFC with Crossed Flow Channels and an Ultra-Thin Membrane.

In this study, a 3D model of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) with crossed channels and an ultra-thin membrane is developed to investigate the feasibility of self-humidification; experiments utilizing a PEMFC stack with identical configurations are conducted to validate the simulation results and further investigate the effects of various operating conditions (OCs) on self-humidification. The results indicate that the crossed flow channel leads to enhanced uniformity of water distribution, resulting in improved cell performance under low/no humidification conditions. External humidifiers for the anode can be removed since the performance difference is negligible (≤3%) between RHa = 0% and 100%. Self-humidification can be achieved in the stack at 90 °C or below with an appropriate back pressure among 100-200 kPa. As the current density increases, there is a gradual convergence and crossing of the voltage at low RH with that at high RH, and the crossover points are observed at 60-80 °C with suitable pressure when successful self-humidification is achieved. Below the current density of the point, the stack's performance is inferior at lower RH due to membrane unsaturation, and conversely, the performance is inferior at higher RH due to flooding; this current density decreases with higher pressure and lower temperature.

Prediction of water distribution uniformity of sprinkler irrigation system based on machine learning algorithms

The coefficients of uniformity Christiansen's uniformity coefficient (CU) and distribution uniformity (DU) are an important parameter for designing irrigation systems, and are an accurate measure for water lose. In this study, three machine learning algorithms Random forest (RF), extreme gradient boosting (XGB) and random forest-extreme gradient boosting (XGB-RF) were developed to predict the water distribution uniformity based on operating pressure, heights of sprinkler, discharge, nozzle diameter, wind speed, humidity, highest and lowest temperature for three different impact sprinklers (KA-4, FOX and 2520) for square and triangular system layout based on four scenarios (input combinations). The main findings were; the highest CU value was 86.7% in the square system of 2520 sprinkler under 200 kPa, 0.5 m height and 0.855 m3/h (Nozzle 2.5 mm). Meanwhile, in the triangular system, it was 87.3% under the same pressure and discharge and 1 m height. For applied machine learning, the highest values of R2 were 0.796, 0.825 and 0.929 in RF, XGB and XGB-RF respectively in the first scenario for CU. Moreover, for the DU, the highest values of R2 were 0.701, 0.479 and 0.826 in RF, XGB and XGB-RF respectively in the first scenario. The obtained results revealed that the sprinkler height had the lowest impact on modeling of the water distribution uniformity.

Optimization of the structure and cathode operating parameters of a serpentine PEMFC with longitudinal vortex generators by response surface method

An improved method based on a concept for enhancing heat and mass transfer based on longitudinal vortex system is proposed for optimizing the performance and water-thermal management of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). A certain number of rectangular plates are added to the cathode channel of the serpentine plate to create the longitudinal vortex to enhance the diffusion of fuel gas, the discharge of water, and temperature distribution uniformity of the fuel cell. A series of numerical studies are conducted employing the response surface method to evaluate the effect of cathode operating parameters on the efficiency and power density of the fuel cell system. The results obviously suggest that the installation of twenty groups of Longitudinal vortex generators(LVGs) in the first four straight flow channels can enhance the mean current density by 5.02 % compared with the condition without LVGs. Meanwhile, LVGs in the cathode flow channel close to the inlet can also enhance the distribution uniformity of membrane temperature by 11.38 %, which can contribute to the diffusion enhancement of oxygen by 36.94 % at the cathode and the improvement of water distribution uniformity by 10.87 %. The main reason for this phenomenon is that the rectangular-plate longitudinal vortex generator can increase the local turbulence intensity of the fuel gas in the cathode channel; therefore, more fuel gas can be transported from the channel to the diffusion layer, leading to a greater current density, in addition to the fact that the generated longitudinal vortex system can assist the exiting of the generated water from the channel. In addition to these, increasing pressure or reducing temperature or relative humidity can enhance power density, while reducing relative humidity is beneficial for improving system efficiency.

Gelation melioration with synergistic interaction between κ-carrageenan and senna tora gum mixed gel

This study aimed to explore the synergistic effect between κ-carrageenan (KC) and senna tora gum (STG). Firstly, we found that the texture parameters, freeze-thaw stability and viscosity of KC-STG mixed gel were obviously improved compared with KC and STG. After that, the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results showed that KC's structure is the main one in the KC-STG mixed gel, and the hydrogen bonding force between KC and STG molecules was enhanced. The results of thermal analysis showed a high gel-sol transition temperature in the KC-STG mixed gel. A reduction in the mobility of water molecules and a more uniform distribution of water in the KC-STG mixed gel could be observed in the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) consequences. Finally, the microstructure of the gel was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), in which the STG network acted as a scaffold to fill in between the multilayered sheets of KC. The above results suggested an obvious synergistic effect between KC and STG.

Spray parameter analysis and performance optimization of indirect evaporative cooler considering surface wettability

Along with the increasing energy consumption of space cooling, the building industry is in urgent need of the environmental-friendly and proven cooling technology. Indirect evaporative cooling (IEC) is attracting wider attention as a sustainable technology based on the heat absorption properties of evaporation. It has been demonstrated that the plate surface covered by the water membrane in the wet channels has a substantial effect on the operating performance in the practical use of IEC technology, while the ideal state of the uniform water distribution assumed by existing models is usually difficult to be achieved. In order to enhance the evaporation process, it is crucial to tune the nozzle features in water supply session and organize the nozzles suitably over the heat exchanger. In this study, a three-dimensions Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model is therefore proposed, which considers the actual wetting factor of the plate surface. In addition, the movement of the spray droplets as well as the formation and flow state of the water film covering the plate surface, are reflected in the simulation model to predict the performance of the IEC under normal operation more accurately. The results depicted that the maximum coverage area could be achieved when the diameter of the spray droplet maintains 0.25 mm with the flow rate is 5.4 L/min, and the distance between two nozzles is 80 mm. Besides, the maximum value of the wet-bulb efficiency and the coefficient of performance (COP) of the IEC system with optimised nozzle parameter settings could be improved up to 15.1 % and 17.6 % respectively compared to the conventional one. The proposed 3D model could contribute to the improvement of further IEC technique by providing a homogeneity of the water film covered on the plate surface to reflect future research into the heat and mass transfer mechanisms of hydrophilic materials.

Developing an optimal plan to improve irrigation efficiency using a risk-based central force algorithm

Abstract Losses in surface irrigation include deep percolation and runoff, which is one of the ways to increase the efficiency of furrow irrigation, using a closed-end mode in irrigation systems. This research was conducted to evaluate the effects of geometrical variables (slope and length of furrow) and flow control (inflow rate and cut-off time) on application efficiency (AE) and the uniformity of water distribution in a closed-end furrow irrigation system. The length, slope, inflow rate, and cut-off time are considered as the decision-making variables for developing the multi-objective genetic algorithm based on the non-dominated sorting. For this purpose, three irrigation furrows with the closed-end system were considered. The optimization algorithm for calculating the objective functions involves maximizing the minimum water depth and minimizing the infiltration depth in a modeling loop. The optimization algorithm was linked to the WinSRFR software to calculate the objective functions. The results showed that the best combination of inflow rate and the cut-off time for 75 mm of required water depth was 1.9 L/s/m and 150 min, respectively, which increased AE and distribution uniformity to 79 and 78%. Furthermore, the AE in the closed-end furrow irrigation system is higher (30–50%) than the open-end method in different scenarios.