Undisturbed Natural Habitat Research Articles

The diversity, composition and functions of soil bacterial communities surrounding Syowa Station, East Antarctica, under different intensities of human disturbances

Since the establishment of Syowa Station over six decades ago, the study on the terrestrial bacterial community surrounding the station has been notably lacking and inadequately documented. Using the latest sequencing technology, we revealed the soil bacterial composition from soil samples collected from the surrounding of the station. In doing so, we also assessed the effect of human disturbances brought upon by different activities in the proximity of the station, in contrast to those in less human interference and pristine areas. Our results show that human activities near the main station facilities, especially within the 100-m range, visibly changed the structure and functions of the soil microbial community. Areas with high levels of human disturbances displayed a decrease in both microbial diversity and richness, accompanied by a lower count of unique amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) compared to regions with intermediate and low human disturbances. Moreover, higher proportions of functions related to hydrocarbon degradation were also predicted from samples collected within this area. In contrast, soil microbial communities from intermediate and low human disturbances samples have higher proportions of bacterial groups and functions consistent with those in undisturbed natural habitats.

Declines of bees and butterflies over 15 years in a forested landscape

Despite growing concerns about pollinator declines,1,2,3,4 evidence that this is a widespread problem affecting entire communities remains limited.5 There is a particular shortage of pollinator time series from relatively undisturbed natural habitats, such as forests, which are generally thought to provide refuge to biodiversity from anthropogenic stressors.6 Here, we present the results from standardized pollinator sampling over 15 years (2007-2022) at three relatively undisturbed forested locations in the southeastern United States. We observed significant declines in the richness (39%) and abundance (62.5%) of bees as well as the abundance of butterflies (57.6%) over this time period. Unexpectedly, we detected much stronger declines in the richness and abundance of above-ground-nesting bees (81.1% and 85.3%, respectively) compared with below-ground-nesting bees. Even after dropping the first or last year of sampling, which happened to yield the greatest and lowest numbers of pollinators, respectively, we still detected many of the same negative trends. Our results suggest that sharp declines in pollinators may not be limited to areas experiencing direct anthropogenic disturbances. Possible drivers in our system include increasing mean annual minimum temperatures near our study sites as well as an invasive wood-nesting ant that has become increasingly widespread and abundant in the region over the course of this study.

Termite diversity is resilient to land‐use change along a forest‐cocoa intensification gradient in Ghana, West Africa

AbstractCocoa is an important crop for Ghana's economy, contributing 25% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The crop, however, is mainly cultivated on forest‐derived soils and is a major cause of land‐use change. Termites are an important biological component of tropical ecosystems providing numerous ecosystem services. Previous studies have indicated that termites are sensitive to forest disturbance and decrease in richness and abundance across land‐use intensification gradients, with consequences for the essential services that they provide. Native shade trees are often used to improve cocoa cultivation and may reduce the detrimental effects of land‐use change on some aspects of biodiversity. The aim of this study was therefore to explore how termites respond to land‐use change along a shade‐tree gradient in Kakum National Park and surrounding cocoa farms in Ghana (from forest at 80% tree cover to cocoa with no shade cover, to the extreme of cultivated arable crop land). It was predicted that termite richness and abundance would decrease with decreasing shade cover, and with increasing distance from the forest edge. Thirty‐four species from 29 genera were sampled, with Ancistrotermes crucifer being found in all the locations (47% of all encounters). Species richness and abundance differed marginally across the land‐use gradient, as well as the distance from the forest edge; however, species richness did not show any significance with distance. All the same, termite communities were robust to the disturbance. Our findings suggest that though site influenced species richness and abundance, cocoa trees can play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and environmental quality in an agricultural landscape by providing a habitat for forest species that are not found in pastures or farm fields. However, we caution that the relatively low forest baseline of existing forest diversity may inflate the value of cocoa land, with those forests no longer representing undisturbed natural habitats: this highlights that shifting baselines may need to be accounted for when interpreting findings in the Anthropocene.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in Colombia with a review of hosts and their ecogeographic distribution.

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most prevalent zoonotic protozoan parasites among warm-blooded animal populations (humans included) around the world, causing multiple clinic manifestations including death in the most severe cases of infection. Due to the versatile life cycle of T. gondii and its diversity of potential hosts, there is a common perception that natural areas and wildlife are highly prevalent reservoirs for the parasite; however, information and reports of the parasite on wildlife populations in Colombia are scarce. Using PRC-based detection analyses of the B1 gene, we evaluated the presence of T. gondii in 49 native small mammal species (10% of the mammal species of Colombia) from 4 different undisturbed natural habitats. Additionally, to understand the ecogeographical distribution of the parasite in Colombia, we developed a literature search of infection reports including information on the host species, density of records and occurrence patterns (using landcover and ecoregions) in natural, rural and urban areas. Our literature review showed a total of 8,103 reports of T. gondii for Colombia of which 86% were related to humans, and 14% to non-human mammals and other categories, with just a single report associated to wildlife; additionally, 82% of all reports were associated to urban areas whereas only 18% to rural sites. Based on the negative results for the presence of T. gondii in our PCR-based analyses and our literature search, we suggest that T. gondii has a synanthropic distribution in Colombia occurring in ecoregions as variable as the xeric scrubs in the northern lowlands and humid montane Andean forests, also we show a lack of information on the parasite relationship with wildlife, a concerning fact given that zoonoses are the leading mechanism for the emergence of infectious diseases.

Assessing the effects of land use on biodiversity in the world\u2019s drylands and Mediterranean environments

Biodiversity models make an important contribution to our understanding of global biodiversity changes. The effects of different land uses vary across ecosystem types, yet most broad-scale models have failed to account for this variation. The effects of land use may be different in systems characterized by low water availability because of the unusual conditions within these systems. Drylands are expanding, currently occupying over 40% of the terrestrial land, while Mediterranean systems are highly endangered biodiversity hotspots. However, the impact of land use on biodiversity in these biomes is yet to be assessed. Using a database of local biodiversity surveys, we assess the effects of land use on biodiversity in the world’s drylands and Mediterranean ecosystems. We compare the average species richness, total abundance, species diversity, ecological dominance, endemism rates, and compositional turnover across different land uses. In drylands, there was a strong turnover in species composition in disturbed land uses compared with undisturbed natural habitat (primary vegetation), but other measures of biodiversity did not respond significantly. However, it is important to note that the sample size for drylands was very low, a gap which should be filled promptly. Mediterranean environments showed a very high sensitivity of biodiversity to land uses. In this biome, even habitat recovering after past disturbance (secondary vegetation) had substantially reduced biodiversity and altered community composition compared with primary vegetation. In an effort to maintain original biodiversity and the ecosystem functions it supports within Mediterranean biomes, conservation measures should therefore prioritize the preservation of remaining primary vegetation.

English

Scutellaria or skullcap is a genus containing approximately 350 species of flowering plants, many of which are sold and marketed for their medicinal value. Flavonoids found in Scutellaria spp. have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antiviral, sedative, antithrombotic and antioxidant affects. Baicalin, a flavonoid produced by Scutellaria spp., is an important compound used to treat anxiety. Scutellaria spp. have potential as commercially valuable specialty crops based on their visual and medicinal properties; however, a lack of commercial production techniques for successful cultivation of this genus precludes adoption by most growers. The influence of plant production techniques on flowering and baicalin synthesis is undocumented; thus, empirical research is needed for development of commercial production protocol. Objectives of this research were to investigate the effect of nutrient application rate and plant available water on growth and baicalin synthesis in Scutellaria arenicola and Scutellaria integrifolia, two common species of Scutellaria found in eastern United States. To accomplish these objectives, S. arenicola and S. integrifolia were cultivated in a greenhouse and subjected to one out of four nutrient application rates and one out of two volumetric water content rates. Results demonstrated that synthesis of baicalin, the main flavonoid of the Scutellaria genus that contributes to its reported medicinal benefits, occurred in both species. Fertilization rate and volumetric water content were found to influence both plant growth and baicalin concentration in S. integrifolia. In contrast to results observed for S. integrifolia, volumetric soil water and nutrient application rate did not influence plant growth in S. arenicola. Scutellaria spp. cultivated in the greenhouse had similar concentrations of baicalin to those harvested from the wild, undisturbed natural habitats. Results from this investigation will assist in development of commercial production protocol for these species and provides the first foundational research that has reported the presence of baicalin, a high value medicinal compound in S. arenicola. Key words: Skullcap, medicinal, flavonoid, cultivation, production.

Response of bats to light with different spectra: light-shy and agile bat presence is affected by white and green, but not red light.

Artificial light at night has shown a remarkable increase over the past decades. Effects are reported for many species groups, and include changes in presence, behaviour, physiology and life-history traits. Among these, bats are strongly affected, and how bat species react to light is likely to vary with light colour. Different spectra may therefore be applied to reduce negative impacts. We used a unique set-up of eight field sites to study the response of bats to three different experimental light spectra in an otherwise dark and undisturbed natural habitat. We measured activity of three bat species groups around transects with light posts emitting white, green and red light with an intensity commonly used to illuminate countryside roads. The results reveal a strong and spectrum-dependent response for the slow-flying Myotis and Plecotus and more agile Pipistrellus species, but not for Nyctalus and Eptesicus species. Plecotus and Myotis species avoided white and green light, but were equally abundant in red light and darkness. The agile, opportunistically feeding Pipistrellus species were significantly more abundant around white and green light, most likely because of accumulation of insects, but equally abundant in red illuminated transects compared to dark control. Forest-dwelling Myotis and Plecotus species and more synanthropic Pipistrellus species are thus least disturbed by red light. Hence, in order to limit the negative impact of light at night on bats, white and green light should be avoided in or close to natural habitat, but red lights may be used if illumination is needed.

Native and introduced land snail species as ecological indicators in different land use types in Java

We investigated the effects of different land use types and environmental parameters on the number and abundance of native and introduced land snail species in East Java. 2919 specimens were sampled and assigned to 55 species of which 8 are introduced. Whereas species richness was highest in primary forest, the highest number of introduced species was found in agroforest. The snail assemblages in different habitat types differ much clearer in composition than in total species richness. Plantations and agroforest are dominated by introduced pulmonates with regard to number of individuals, while primary forest is dominated by native prosobranchs. The habitat requirements of the introduced pulmonates differ from those of the native species. In the study area, the abundance of native as well as introduced pulmonate species increased with increasing human impact. However, the abundance of introduced pulmonate species decreased with increasing density of the canopy cover, whereas the abundance of native pulmonate species increased with increasing canopy cover. The abundance of native prosobranch land snails also tends to increase with increasing canopy cover and with the availability of deadwood, but decreased with increasing human impact. Improving the canopy cover and retaining deadwood in plantations and agroforests might help to control the populations of introduced species or even prevent their establishment in these habitats. Land snails are good indicators for the long-term stability of natural habitats, because several species are restricted to undisturbed natural habitats and because of their low dispersal abilities. However, complete inventories of land snail species are costly. Therefore we propose two indices that can be scored with much less effort, namely the percentage of prosobranch individuals and the percentage of individuals of introduced species. Both indices are significantly correlated with the number of native species. Dense plantations and agroforests bordering primary forests may protect the latter from introduced species and help to conserve the native fauna by reducing desiccation and buffering the human impact on the primary forests.

Large Roads Disrupt Insect Movement: A Case Study of the Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Roads are a growing mosaic in the landscape, splitting and reducing the area of natural habitats of organisms. To examine the effects of large roads on insect movements, the Egyptian cotton leaf worm moth Spodoptera littoralis was used as a model species in a mark-recapture experiment. The flight of male moths towards female sexual pheromone across a motorway and an open field was compared. Road constructions may disrupt movements of individual insects as recapture probability was lower when moths had to cross a road to reach the bait compared with that in undisturbed natural habitat. The observed road effect may appear a very general response among insects as noctuids are generally highly mobile. We conclude that increasing fragmentation of natural habitats due to road networks may not only affect many insect populations worldwide, but also deteriorate ecosystem function and services as insects are important pollinators of natural and cultivated plants.

Trade-offs between bird diversity and abundance, yields and revenue in smallholder oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia

Global land-use change has drastic consequences for biodiversity leading to losses of ecological functioning, ecosystem services and human well-being. While species dependent on undisturbed natural habitat are most affected by conversion to agriculture, even populations of disturbance-tolerant species can be endangered in landscapes dominated by high-input mono-cultural cropping systems. This has raised the question of how, and at what cost, a diversity of species can be conserved in such habitats. Focusing on birds of smallholder oil palm-dominated landscapes, we investigated the relationship between the ecological and economic outcomes of remnant or planted trees in smallholder oil palm plantations. The study comprised a household and a field component. We gathered plot specific data on yields, revenue and inputs from 120 households owning productive oil palm plantations in the Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Bird diversity and abundance as well as vegetation structure was assessed on the same oil palm plots. We tested the effects of a set of economic and ecological variables on measures of bird diversity, bird abundance, oil palm yield, and total revenue. Our results show that a gain in bird diversity and bird abundance conditional on increases in number of trees comes along with a loss in revenue for farmers indicating that there is a win–lose relationship between ecological and economic functions. However, since the relationship is non-linear, costs for bird species gain or gain in bird abundance change depending on the number of trees within an oil palm plantation: in a relatively extensively managed oil palm plantation (high number of trees, low oil palm yields), a further increase in the number of bird species or individuals leads to a relatively high loss in total revenue, whereas in an intensively managed oil palm plantation the same increase in number of bird species results in a smaller loss in revenue. An increase in bird abundance can be fostered at smaller costs when compared to the costs for increasing biodiversity. This suggests that there is room for tree-based enrichment of intensively managed oil palm plantations, where a relatively high increase in bird species richness or bird abundance could be achieved at relatively low cost.

Simultaneous delimitation of species and quantification of interspecific hybridization in Amazonian peacock cichlids (genus cichla) using multi-locus data

BackgroundIntrogression likely plays a significant role in evolution, but understanding the extent and consequences of this process requires a clear identification of species boundaries in each focal group. The delimitation of species, however, is a contentious endeavor. This is true not only because of the inadequacy of current tools to identify species lineages, but also because of the inherent ambiguity between natural populations and species paradigms. The result has been a debate about the supremacy of various species concepts and criteria. Here, we utilized multiple separate sources of molecular data, mtDNA, nuclear sequences, and microsatellites, to delimit species under a polytypic species concept (PTSC) and estimate the frequency and genomic extent of introgression in a Neotropical genus of cichlid fishes (Cichla). We compared our inferences of species boundaries and introgression under this paradigm to those when species are identified under a diagnostic species concept (DSC).ResultsWe find that, based on extensive molecular data and an inclusive species concept, 8 separate biological entities should be recognized rather than the 15 described species of Cichla. Under the PTSC, fewer individuals are expected to exhibit hybrid ancestry than under the DSC (~2% vs. ~12%), but a similar number of the species exhibit introgression from at least one other species (75% vs. 60%). Under either species concept, the phylogenetic breadth of introgression in this group is notable, with both sister species and species from different major mtDNA clades exhibiting introgression.ConclusionsIntrogression was observed to be a widespread phenomenon for delimited species in this group. While several instances of introgressive hybridization were observed in anthropogenically altered habitats, most were found in undisturbed natural habitats, suggesting that introgression is a natural but ephemeral part of the evolution of many tropical species. Nevertheless, even transient introgression may facilitate an increase in genetic diversity or transfer of adaptive mutations that have important consequences in the evolution of tropical biodiversity.

Roadless and Low-Traffic Areas as Conservation Targets in Europe.

With increasing road encroachment, habitat fragmentation by transport infrastructures has been a serious threat for European biodiversity. Areas with no roads or little traffic (“roadless and low-traffic areas”) represent relatively undisturbed natural habitats and functioning ecosystems. They provide many benefits for biodiversity and human societies (e.g., landscape connectivity, barrier against pests and invasions, ecosystem services). Roadless and low-traffic areas, with a lower level of anthropogenic disturbances, are of special relevance in Europe because of their rarity and, in the context of climate change, because of their contribution to higher resilience and buffering capacity within landscape ecosystems. An analysis of European legal instruments illustrates that, although most laws aimed at protecting targets which are inherent to fragmentation, like connectivity, ecosystem processes or integrity, roadless areas are widely neglected as a legal target. A case study in Germany underlines this finding. Although the Natura 2000 network covers a significant proportion of the country (16%), Natura 2000 sites are highly fragmented and most low-traffic areas (75%) lie unprotected outside this network. This proportion is even higher for the old Federal States (western Germany), where only 20% of the low-traffic areas are protected. We propose that the few remaining roadless and low-traffic areas in Europe should be an important focus of conservation efforts; they should be urgently inventoried, included more explicitly in the law and accounted for in transport and urban planning. Considering them as complementary conservation targets would represent a concrete step towards the strengthening and adaptation of the Natura 2000 network to climate change.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00267-011-9751-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Aspects of the population ecology of the Green and golden bell frogLitoria aureaat the northern end of its range

Development of appropriate conservation programs for threatened species requires a basic understanding of their population ecology. We studied a population of the Green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea in the far north of its range. This population occupies a coastal lagoon within Yuraygir National Park. Permanent tagging of frogs was conducted between August 1998 and March 2003. Population estimation based on the mark and recapture of frogs in 1998-99 suggested that the population contained at least 100 adult male frogs.Approximately 75 male bell frogs called from around the lagoon on one night in November 200 I .The number of females captured in any year was low and it is unclear whether this is due to low detectability associated with irregular use of breeding sites or a highly skewed sex ratio. More than 60% of tagged male frogs were recaptured across one active season, but only two were recaptured outside the season of initial capture.This suggests that few male frogs live longer than about 2 years as adults. Breeding was erratic over a 6-year period and only one major metamorphosis event was observed. It appears that bell frogs may have greater breeding success in ephemeral ponds forming away from the lagoon, though there is a risk that these ponds may not persist for tadpoles to complete development. Frogs in this northern population were predominantly brown in colour, suggesting some morphological and genetic differentiation from southern populations in which most frogs are predominantly green. Further study of this important population is needed to more adequately determine the size of the female component of the population, and to better understand the limits on successful breeding.These issues will influence our understanding of the viability of the population, and therefore our ability to devise appropriate management actions. This study provides the first published account of aspects of the population ecology of the Green and golden bell frog in relatively undisturbed natural habitat.

Reply to Niesten and Rice’s Comment

The prescriptions advanced by ecologists and foresters about how best to preserve and/or sustainably manage tropical forest ecosystems influence public policy to varying degrees, depending on the relative power wielded by either group in international or governmental bodies at any particular moment in time. Public policy in turn is influenced by direct lobbying and through reaction to public opinion which is shaped by the debates that are presented in specialist publications like this one, the media, and in boardrooms, classrooms and conferences. Both disciplines are dominated by Northern scientists who arguably bring their own experiential biases to bear on the debates. The Commentary on Sustainable Forest Management and Conservation Incentive Agreements by Niesten and Rice is a restatement of their positions, as set out in the articles cited in their References. The Commentary first sets out the case against SFM, then moves to a promotion of conservation incentive agreements (CIA), and finally examines the case for combining the two, i.e. logging a stand of all its commercially valuable timber species and then closing it off under a conservation incentive agreement. The stated premise in the piece is the urgent need to cordon off ever larger amounts of ‘undisturbed natural habitat’ for biodiversity conservation against the continuing trend of deforestation due to logging and land clearing. The rallying cry of all these pieces is indeed to protect against disturbance of what are portrayed as the remaining ‘old growth’ tropical frontier forests. I shall comment briefly on four issues considered in this piece by Niesten and Rice: the unstated espousal of an equilibrium state for tropical forests; the critique of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM); the ‘log-andprotect’ prescription; and conservation incentive agreements. Finally I shall summarise an alternative approach to managing tropical forests sustainably, the goal desired by a planetary majority, including ecologists and foresters. My own bias is shaped by Guyanese citizenship and anthropological training. My approach, then, is that of a non-specialist, being neither ecologist nor forester. The Western science of ecology is a comparatively new field, but one whose pronouncements on the big questions of our time, from assigning responsibility among nations for global warming and climate change to species extinction rates are generally accorded great weight by public and policy makers alike. However, a number of the pronouncements of its adherents have been questioned from both inside (Botkin 1990, Wu and Loucks 1995) and outside (Blaikie 1985, Cronon 1996, Forsyth 2003) of the discipline. The underlying premise of this piece by Niesten and Rice is the undesirability of ‘disturbance’ of tropical forest ecosystems, echoing ‘the cult of wilderness’ approach of Northern ‘deep’ or Green ecologists. The goal of ‘undisturbed natural habitat,’ is introduced in paragraph 3, and recurs throughout the Commentary. The authors maintain that ‘relative to an unlogged forest, even the most careful timber harvest implies a significant disturbance that can result in a variety of negative impacts on biodiversity’. However, many ecologists and other scientists now question the equilibrium thesis, as new scientific evidence emerges of planetary disturbances and more studies published of anthropogenic forests and landscapes. Some years ago, the geographers Karl Zimmerer and

Lake Trout Discovered in Yellowstone Lake Threaten Native Cutthroat Trout

On 30 July 1994, lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) were discovered in Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, the core of the remaining undisturbed natural habitat for native Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri). Data from this and other lake trout subsequently caught by anglers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service suggest lake trout have reproduced in Yellowstone Lake since at least 1989 and now number in the thousands, perhaps tens of thousands. A highly piscivorous, nonnative species, lake trout will probably thrive in Yellowstone Lake and reduce the lake's cutthroat trout stocks substantially unless preventive management actions are taken. A team of scientists that convened in February 1995 to discuss the lake trout problem concluded that there is little chance lake trout can be eliminated from Yellowstone Lake. The team projected a decline of 90% or more in cutthroat trout numbers in 20 years–100 years if the lake trout population is not controlled. The team considered mechanical removal methods, either gillnetting or some combination of gillnetting and trapping, to be the management actions most likely to control lake trout.

Populations of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) and the Risk of Leishmania major Transmission in Three Jordan Valley Habitats

The abundance, population structure, and Leishmania infection rates of Phlebotomus papatasi were studied at two villages, a 10-yr old date plantation, and an undisturbed natural habitat in the Jordan Valley throughout one season. On 109 trap nights in the villages, 53 female and 61 male P. papatasi were caught, whereas in burrows in the natural and agriculturally modified habitat, greater than 3,500 sandflies were trapped on 157 trap nights. Burrows in the data plantation produced larger numbers of males and females significantly more frequently than burrows in the natural habitat. The sex ratio in the natural habitat and the date plantation was significantly male biased. Parous rates were similar among habitats, whereas gravid females were significantly more active in the modified habitat. Leishmania infected females were not collected in the villages, yet close to 10% of females collected in the two other habitats were infected. Risk of transmission to humans in the villages was negligible, but people working in the date plantation were exposed to Leishmania infected sandflies.

Population biology of White-crowned Sparrows: Residence time and local movements of juveniles

A field study of the ranging behavior of post-fledging White-crowned Sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys nuttalli) was carried out in undisturbed natural habitat in the Point Reyes National Seashore, Marin Co., California, USA. Forty-three first-brood juveniles, with tail feathers still growing, were banded at an estimated average age of 27 days and re-trapped an average of an additional 24 days for a total minimum time in residence in the immediate natal area of 51 days (Table 1).

<i>Quercus semecarpifolia</i> Sm. in the Himalayan region: Ecology, exploitation and threats

Oaks (Quercus spp.) are among the dominant vascular plants of the Himalayas, ranging from the subtropical to the sub-alpine zones. They play an important role in maintaining ecosystem stability. Oaks in the Himalayan region are intimately linked with subsistence hill agriculture as they protect soil fertility, watershed and local biodiversity. They also supply fodder, leaf litter, firewood and timber. Q. semecarpifolia is a high altitude oak, ranging up to the timberline in the Himalayan region and forming the climax community on the southern aspect; it is considered to be one of the oldest plants of the region. It is also one of the most over-exploited species and fails to regenerate adequately either in disturbed or undisturbed natural habitat. Since plantation has not been successful, it is important to manage natural forest more effectively. This can be done by implementing sustainable methods of lopping the trees for fodder, removing an adequate number of old and dying trees to make the canopy more open, and controlling the population of cattle and wild animals that damage seedlings through browsing and trampling.
 
 Key words: Himalayan region, oak, Q. semecarpifolia, khasru, regeneration of Quercus
 
 Himalayan Journal of Sciences 1(2): 126-128, 2003