Underdeveloped States Research Articles

Irregular Migration from Türkiye to The United States

The United States’ southern border has been witnessing a record increase in illegal entrance of Turkish citizens. According to the data provided by the United States border patrol, during the 2023 fiscal year, 15.542 Turkish citizens entered the country illegally through the United States-Mexican border. This number was under 100 per year over the last decade. Although it has not gotten much attention in media and academic circles, the rate of the increase in the number of Turkish citizens entering the United States illegally is alarming. While the main reasons of the high numbers of people migrating from Erdogan’s Türkiye include general insatiateness regarding economic and political problems, substandard working conditions and underdeveloped fundamental human rights protection system United States’ prestigious image in the world, strong economy and promising future can be counted among the main reasons that migrants prefer it as destination country. The surprising rise of Turkish citizens choosing Mexico as a transit country to enter the States is attributed to the transnational criminal organizations’ connections to Türkiye. The dire circumstances Turkish people experience and their endeavor to find a way to “get out of Türkiye” plays into the hands of cartels. The article points out this multilateral phenomenon and sets forth the push and pull factors, elaborating the involvement of transnational criminal organizations in Mexico.

Pakistan in the Crosshairs and the Rising Stakes of Strategic Information Warfare

Over the past two decades, information and communication technologies (ICTs) have reaped significant attention from security experts, computer scientists, intelligence agencies, and governments for their potential applications in conflict scenarios. Using ICTs for offensive or defensive purposes to instantly invade, disrupt, or control the opponent's resources is known as strategic information warfare (SIW). Although SIW is as ancient as military history, the communication sciences revolution has altered its character. It has evolved into a double-edged weapon that is equally crucial for strong nations, technically underdeveloped states, non-state entities, and individual software experts. Some nations, most notably the US, Russia, and China, have taken the SIW technology seriously and compared it to the danger posed by WMDs. In the south Asian context, Pakistan faces a direct threat from India, which collaborates closely with Israel, by the use of SIW.
 Additionally, the Western media portrays a highly negative picture of Pakistan's administration, law and order, and economy. The national media, suitably supported by foreign players, has begun a propaganda warfare effort against Pakistan's military forces and intelligence institutions. However, SIW is now a global danger, necessitating a worldwide response. Pakistan must create a proactive national strategy to prepare for the problems erupted from SIW strike on the communication network, which is crucial for the operation of its nuclear facilities.

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ МОЖЛИВОСТЕЙ СТРУКТУРОВАНИХ АНАЛІТИЧНИХ МЕТОДІВ У РОЗВІДУВАЛЬНОЇ ІНФОРМАЦІЙНОЇ РОБОТІ

Structured analytical methods are an integral component for all analytical specialists who seek to introduce transparency, scientificity into their daily analytical work, provide justification for making intelligence decisions and avoid surprises. Good analysis and foresight means that we constantly need to question ourselves. These studies show us how to do this in a structured and systematic way. They are easy to use, practice-oriented and convince even skeptics of the need to use structured technologies. The structured analytical methods explored in the work stimulate the imagination, raise the level of demandingness, and are applied to solving complex intelligence problems, as well as other areas that require significant analysis. This is a new, expanded study and a must-have resource for daily use by any serious intelligence analyst. The work noted that despite the intensive study and criticism of intelligence information work, little attention was traditionally paid to the analysis of intelligence activities. Most assessments tend to focus on issues such as covert foreign operations and covert activities, perhaps because they align more easily with popular perceptions of the intelligence world, but analysis has perhaps never been a more important part of the profession or needed by intelligence officers. Compared to the bipolar dynamics of the Cold War, in this new world the threat of underdeveloped states, spreading dangers, regional crises, rising powers and dangerous non-state actors is looming. Of course, there are valuable secrets to be discovered by intelligence - things to know and discover. But this world is also rich with mysteries related to the future course of events and the intentions of key actors. Such things are unlikely to be illuminated by a single piece of classified intelligence; these are necessarily topics for analysis.

TO IDENTIFY THE FACTORS OF MALAY STUDENTS INVOLVED IN HYSTERIA BY USING DASS21, DRAWING TEST AND IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

The prevalence of mental illness is significant and increasing in Malaysia. 37% of all impairments in Malaysia are mental health-related. Hysteria is considered to be a symptom of emotional distress and a mental illness that frequently affects teenage girls. In colleges, it frequently takes place in class. Hysteria frequently begins with one student and quickly expands to up to 20–50 additional students. Spontaneous shouting, writhing, uncontrollable weeping, babbling, and bodily immobility are some of its peculiar symptoms. They became hysterical for a number of reasons. Psychological factors, family background, culture, and religion all had an influence on the mass hysteria incidents that happened in Kelantan schoolchildren because the respondents came from typical, underdeveloped traditional states. A qualitative approach, psychological tests like dass 21, drawing test and triangulation method were used for this study. The hysteria students were selected from secondary school age 13 until 17. The findings of the study may guide health workers in Kelantan to manage victims of mass hysteria appropriately and to diagnose the episodes timely. Mass hysteria in the Kelantan context is better understood, teachers can be empowered through health education to enable them to identify mass hysteria outbreaks in schools early, manage victims and observers more effectively and refer victims to health workers for treatment.

Plato’s Crito and the Contradictions of Modern Citizenship

Citizenship, with its presumptive rights, privileges and obligations, has been a fundamental challenge confronting the state since the classical Greek era and the transformation and reorganization of the centralized medieval Holy Roman Empire after the Thirty Years War. With the changing patterns of state formation from the large and unwieldy empires organized into absolutist states to the more nationalistic/linguistic formations a recurring issue has been the constitutional or legal guarantees of the rights of the citizen as well as his/her obligations to the state. This paper engaged in a nuanced study of Plato’s Crito as it relates the contradictions of citizenship as social membership and as participation in the modern state. The primary objective was to adapt Socrates’ experience to discuss the citizenship challenge in the modern state and driven by the research question on the implications of the emergence of new challenges to the contradictions of citizenship. Social contract theory by Thomas Hobbes served as the theoretical framework. Data collection was mainly from secondary sources such as academic journals, books, newspapers and internet sources, and data analysis based on the content and textual analysis of extant and relevant literature on the subject matter. Conclusively, the study realized that citizenship in the modern state is determined largely by the protection, in various ramifications, given to the citizen by the state, but that given a change in the circumstances many would decline to die for the state. Accordingly, it recommended a mutualism in the relationship and responsibilities between that state and the citizen of the modern state, particularly the underdeveloped states of the Third World.

A REVIEW ON THE POTENTIAL SCOPE TOWARDS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL CONSERVATION OF THE FERMENTED FISH PRODUCTS OF INDIA

Fermented food has been consumed as a delicacy across many regions along the globe. This review addresses the specific need of the metagenomics and transcriptomics approach in understanding the traditional fermented fish products of India, which uses the fish Puntius sp. as raw material. The fermented fish products play a very important role in the socioeconomic and livelihood specifically of the underdeveloped Northeastern states of India. There were reports on the presence of the healthy probiotic bacteria from the culture dependent microbial works. The isolated probiotic bacteria were reported to show antimicrobial spectrum against common pathogenic bacterial strains and has antioxidant properties. Till date, no work has been focussed on culture-independent techniques, establishment of safe starter culture and extension of shelf life of the fermented products of India. Such studies could potentially help to generate information towards a safety line of production for industrial development. This study also strongly raised the need for protecting the processes of traditional fermentation techniques that are employed by the respective place of origin. As the original ancestral techniques employed for the production of the individual fermented fish products has close resemblance, it is an urgent need to conserve these ethnic ancestral products, which will represent as a reference to demonstrate and witness the existence of rich culture of North-eastern India. Further, suggestions are being made on maintenance of production data bank, to support the verbal fact that these fermented fish product is an extremely important daily essential diet of the north-eastern India.

The Divisible College: A Day in the Lives of Public International Law

AbstractThis is an article about two things. First, the bifurcation of public international law (PIL) into two distinct forms: The material and the narrative. And second, the methodological fragmentation of international lawyers into discrete communities. After setting the substantive fragmentation of PIL as the context of analysis, I deploy Susan Marks’ concept of “false contingency” to distinguish material and narrative PIL. I briefly examine each, and their interactions, before turning to a specific manifestation of material PIL that I call the Global Legal Order (GLO).I then sketch the radical indeterminacy of narrative PIL, its manifestations in the ontological indeterminacy of the commonly accepted sources of PIL, and its source in PIL’s lack of authority and institutionalization. This contrasts with the determinacy and authority of the GLO. Next, I turn to the “fragmentation” of international lawyers into distinct “communities of practice.” In fact, this process turns out to be one of agglomeration, international lawyers are constructed within communities of practice, which glom together to create the appearance of PIL.Finally, I turn to how these communities function by pitting “performances of legality” in “vicarious litigation,” using the Chagos Islands case as an illustration. This is contrasted with the functioning of the operative legal system that is the GLO. I examine the constituent institutions of this system, and how they operate together to produce direct and indirect governance in under-developed states. In practice, this policy imposition immiserates states and antagonizes local populations. It necessitates oppressive governance which entails what narrative PIL determines to be “human rights abuses.”

Infrastructure inequities and its effect on poverty reduction across regional states in Ethiopia

Sustainable development aims to enhance the quality of life in an inclusive manner, including economic prosperity, social equity, and environmental protection. Megaprojects are ‘large unique projects’ where public actors play a significant role and are often the conduit of corruption, and eradication of corruption is one of the critical challenges in most parts of the world, particularly the developing countries. Besides, corruption in construction can decrease the efficiency, effectiveness, and equity of infrastructure and services, resulting in the execution of ‘white elephant’ projects that are neither growth-inducing nor relevant to needs. Therefore, lack of access to roads, electricity, mobile phones, and the Internet limits the potential earnings of modern accessibilities and facilities in developing countries, and it also has a negative impact on poverty reduction. Although there are high perceptions about infrastructure inequity in Ethiopia, the difference between relatively developed and underdeveloped regions or states is not clear, especially in the equitable allocation of infrastructure resources. By analysing regional infrastructure, the states are categorised based on the results of the Composite Infrastructure Index, thereby exposing the unequal distribution of infrastructure and services. This paper shows gross inequity of public investments in Ethiopia, hindering the country's nation-building process. In substantially unequal societies, elite groups are more able to manipulate and influence policymakers to their advantage. Understanding the nature and extent of regional inequities in Ethiopia, as exemplified by regional infrastructure differentials, and finding sustainable solutions is imperative to socioeconomic development and shared prosperity.

A simplified non-greenhouse hydroponic system for small-scale soilless urban vegetable farming

Majority of under-developed countries continue to face a challenge of food insecurity around urban areas resulting from factors such as; limited access to arable land. This study aimed at developing a simplified low-tech hydroponic system for growing leafy vegetables alongside testing its economic viability. This was intended to support urban vegetable production and henceforth contributing to food security more so in under-developed states dealing with the challenge of increasing urban population vs. reducing arable land around urban/ peri-urban areas. A hydroponic unit for growing 60 leafy vegetables (using lettuce as a study crop) under non-controlled environmental conditions was designed and developed using low-cost and low-tech materials. Kratky hydroponic method which involves growing crops using water as a media without the need for water pumps and electricity was used. A study was also carried out to assess the profitability of the system. The results indicated a: net present values of 16.37$, internal rate of return of 12.57%, profitability index of 1.1 and non-discounted payback period of approximately 8 months (4 cropping seasons).These findings showed that the system has the potential to improve urban food production and availability in especially in developing countries in a profitable manner. Vegetable production using the hydroponic system can also contribute to:•tachievement of sustainable development goals, 2 (zero hunger) and 3 (good health and wellbeing);•improvement in urban agriculture production and income generation among urban farmers;•enhanced adoption of low-cost, low-tech, environmental-friendly and sustainable farming systems.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT & THE ECONOMIC GROWTH OF BIHAR (1981- 2019)

This study explores the relationship between public expenditure on the agricultural sector and economic growth in the agriculturally underdeveloped states of Bihar over the period 1981-2019. In estimating the longrun model, first, the time series characteristic of the data is tested using ADF and the PhillipsPerron tests. Then, the Johansen cointegration test was conducted. Both The longrun and shortrun estimate result shows that public spending on the agricultural sector has a significant effect on the per capita real GDP. This study revealed that government spending on the agricultural sector has an insignificant effect both in the longrun and shortrun periods. While agriculture is the dominant sector and the majority of rural society is engaged in this sector, hence it needs to reduce unproductive government consumption expenditure and give attention to redirecting to productive activities. This will stimulate activities in the economic sectors and, perhaps, converse the insignificant effect on economic growth. The gross fixed capital formation has a positive and significant impact on per capita real GDP in Bihar during the period under review. This result seems to imply that the government should have to build up capital stock by the accumulation of capital formation regularly to improve the per capita real GDP. The labor force has an insignificant effect on the growth of per capita real GDP. Hence, improving the productivity of the labor force through technical and vocational training should have to be a prominent task.

Can Social Enterprises Create Holistic Women Empowerment?

World leaders across the globe are focusing on issues of women empowerment through the creation of equal opportunities in education, work, and society. The Indian artisans are being exposed to several interventions that aim at creating empowerment for these women from the rural underprivileged social strata. Social entrepreneurship has been considered as a driver of women's empowerment; hence it also becomes important to assess its potential to empower women in Indian rural artisan communities. The study was conducted in rural villages of one of the most underdeveloped states of India. Woman empowerment was measured on indices proposes by OXFAM. 130 women engaged with a social enterprise, and 127 women who were part of an NGO were compared with a base group of 130 women untouched by any intervention. We found that both social entrepreneurship and non-governmental organizations had the potential to influence women's empowerment, but social enterprises performed better on most of the indexes. The women working with the social enterprise have stronger financial independence that may be attributing to better self-confidence, autonomy, individual capability, opinion towards women’s economic role, greater control over household decisions and assets. While the environmental level indicators are slightly improved for NGO-based women, most probably due to their unity and psychological effect of being in a group. Social enterprises provided these women with hassle-free earnings and were accepted by the patriarchal social structure.

Barriers and potential solutions for MSMEs in developing economies: Evidence from India

Micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) have emerged as an accelerator of economic growth with a sizeable contribution in job creation, innovation development, and reduction of regional disparities in most world economies. This paper investigates the influence of external and internal factors affecting the growth of MSMEs in poor-performing Bihar state, India. The objective of the study is to identify the major deep-rooted causes for the inability of MSMEs to compete in developing states and identify potential solutions. The study is based on an empirical database; it tested various dimensions of MSMEs barriers in their potential growth. The target group included MSMEs of Bihar state, India, using a sample of 450 entrepreneurs. The paper adopted a multistage stage sampling and multivariate analysis technique. The results showed that there are twelve major potential barriers, both endogenous and exogenous, faced by MSMEs, such as availability of raw materials, financial issues, labor force challenges, technology inefficiency, power/electricity scarcity, poor marketing, competition, knowledge-related challenges, government and administration problems, infrastructure inefficiency, etc. The findings show that these barriers affect the promotion and growth of MSMEs in developing regions. In future, it is suggested to focus on the implementation of good governance that helps to remove effectively the major barriers of MSMEs in underdeveloped states, such as Bihar, India.

Development Tools of Parasitic Paradigm: An African Perspective of Western Theories of Development and Reforms

The orthodox conceptualisation of development and its reforms which are rooted in Western schools of thought recognizes the existence of three categories of polities, viz: developed, developing and underdeveloped states. But the major questions that are of concern are: on what grounds do we submit that a country is developed, and the other is either developing or underdeveloped? Using a historical method of research and utilising mainly secondary sources of data, the paper attempts to answer these salient issues by critiquing the orthodox western development theories and reforms, citing a wide range of instances of faulty development reforms imposed on the global south by the West. The study found that the western driven ̳development reforms or policies‘ for the governments of the global North are incompatible with the dynamics and interests of the South. It also found that the western driven ̳development reforms or policies‘ were never intended to sustain the economies of the global south or worsen the North-South dichotomy. The paper concludes that every society has its own sense of development and that the orthodox conception of development, and its reforms are not sacrosanct given the peculiarities of the global South. The paper also posits that western driven ̳development reforms or policies‘ are ̳neo-colonial schemes‘ targeted at strengthening the core-periphery arrangements between the global North and the global South.

On the Similarity of Colonialist Policies Implemented Against the Ottoman Empire and the Far East: The Bargains Over Korea After the Shimonoseki Agreement

The industrialized Western powers, seeking free trade, raw materials and market, turned their faces to the underdeveloped states of the Middle and the Far East in the 19th century. First Ottoman Empire, then China and Japan became the targets of this process in a short time. Ottoman Empire was transformed into a semi colony between 1856-1881. After China’s defeat against Japan, the French and British diplomats had discussed repeating the policy which they implemented against Ottoman Empire after the Crimean War in 1853-1856, for China. Colonial effects had begun with trade agreement in Ottoman Empire and continued with changes in judiciary, land laws and increasing the rights of foreigners. Also Japan, who learned how to be a colonialist from British Empire, captured the sovereignty and made changes to judicial and social laws in Korea. In this study, we emphasized that the colonial policies were the same everywhere in both the Near East or the Far East. The Archival documents show the similarities to colonial policies implemented in the Ottoman Empire and Korea. The main source of the findings in this study is the diplomatic correspondence of British diplomats in the region, in the National Archives.

The Global Economic Impact of Terrorism

Abstract In general, when analyzing the costs of armed conflict, the literature most often relates to civil wars or interstate conflicts. The moment of September 11, 2001 marked the beginning of a new concern in the economy, namely the economic cost of terrorism. Terrorism is a form of conflict in which acts of violence are directed at non-combatants or civilians who are usually unrelated to the political target of the group that committed it. This article analyzes existing data on the costs of terrorist acts that are committed by non-state parties or subnational groups. In this article, we will also look at the impact that terrorism has on the world economy (including both developed and underdeveloped states). We will find that although it has a significant impact on the global economy, the most devastating effects of violence are felt by underdeveloped economies whose poverty and inequality do not allow for a rapid and sustained response to terrorism.

GIRL CHILD RIGHTS :A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND IRAQI LAW

Girls still suffer from violations for their rights, they are the first victims for violation of human right. pay attention to girls and terminate the matter of the discrimination against them, especially in the developing countries and build their personality to be themselves and their families able to face the future and to be pioneers influence the society, Therefore, the United Nations focused on the rights of girls and promised it one of the sustainable development goals that it seeks to achieve in 2030. However, we lack legislation and international conventions on the rights of the girl child, Convention on the Rights of the Child for 1989, and Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) 1979 violation against them are considered the keystone of the rights of girls internationally. I shall use the comparative approach in my research methodology between the Iraqi law and the international conventions and agreements, in order to compare the general provisions, as well as mentioning the most serious violations of the rights of the girl child in Iraqi society and the provisions of Islamic Sharia regarding these violations. The study aims to find special rules for the girl child that distinguish her and grant her adequate rights from childhood, as I did not find anyone who addressed the rights of the girl child in Iraqi Republic in the light of international law, despite the serious violations of her rights, and we did not find the Iraqi legislator has sought or seek to develop legislations that limiting these violations. Thus, I shall search the problem in two researches, the first about what are the rights of the girl child, The second research is about the main rights of girls. The most important results I found that the rights of the girl child encouraged and helped girls to develop mentally, physically and psychologically, that contribute to the development of societies, and the most underdeveloped states are those that do not consider or pay attention to the rights of girls under the age of eighteen, With the need to pay attention to the education and upbringing of girls to be a leading woman in society and to be able to live and provide for her family.

Basic Human Values and Attitudes Towards a Universal Basic Income in Europe

Abstract This study contributes to the emerging literature on public opinion on a universal basic income (UBI) not only by investigating the role of basic human values in influencing support for UBI but also by examining the moderating role of welfare state development in the association between basic human values and UBI support. Using the European Social Survey (ESS) Round 8 in 2016, which has an item asking whether to support UBI and the 21-item measure of human values that is based on the Schwartz theory of basic human values, the results show that individual universalism that is a self-transcendence value is positively and significantly associated with support for UBI, while the other self-transcendence value, benevolence, has a negative relationship with that; the two self-enhancement values, power and achievement, are positively linked to support for UBI. Additionally, in advanced welfare states, people who are more inclined towards individual universalism are more likely to support UBI; by contrast, in underdeveloped welfare states, this relationship is not apparent.

IMPEDIMENTS TO WOMEN HIGHER EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN: A CASE STUDY OF DISTRICT CHITRAL

Education is a holistic approach for peace, progress and bringing change in a society. Women equipped with higher education play a significant role in development of a country. The socio-economic and political uplift of a society largely depends on women higher education. Almost all the developed countries of the world give equal attention and consideration to boys as well as girls education; however higher education in underdeveloped states including Pakistan is the most neglected sector. In developing countries including Pakistan one of the major causes of lagging behind economically and socially is absence of technically qualified and highly educated women. Since its inception Pakistan has faced many serious issues in education sector and the education system has failed to deliver to the aspirations of the people. However, literacy rate in Pakistan since 2014 has sustainably increased from 56 percent to 59 percent, however the ratio and proportion of girls is 43 percent as compared to boy’s 57 percent which is still a matter of serious concern. The status of women education varies in rural urban division in Pakistan. Situated just across the borders of Afghanistan Chitral is the northern-most district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Because of its topology and geographic location Chitral is isolated from the rest of Pakistan. The socio-economic sector of the area was largely ignored in the past, due to which the living condition of people are extremely poor. Among the population of 4 lakhs almost 36 percent of the population live below the poverty line according to a baseline survey (ICUN). Although the ratio of education in Chitral is high comparatively in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, but still women face substantial challenges and hurdles in higher education. Women education in primary and secondary level is slightly better than higher education level. Women face many hurdles and issues because of socio-cultural taboos, financial constraints, negative perception of co-education and lack of facilities in in higher education sector. This paper will discuss and highlight the status of women education in Chitral, problem faced by NGOs working for higher education, impediments to women higher education and will suggest recommendation for a better way forward

Global Climate Change: A Threat Multiplier to Pak- Afghan Constrained Relations

Pakistan and Afghanistan both are underdeveloped states and totally depended on agriculture for their economic spine. Terrorism issues with massive liability shortfall, susceptible set-up, bad governance, huge corruption, widespread poverty and extensive protection disbursement share the issues and issues of both countries. Global Climate Change and weather trade, and enlarging risk, foretells disastrous consequences on agriculture. The South Asian Region generally and PakAfghan particularly vulnerable to Challenges due to the weather change, consisting of, quickly melting Himalayan glaciers resultant in water shortage, low farming harvests main to meals lack confidence, threatened seashores, and people movement are causal to the emergencies of individualism and power between two important neighbours. These multidimensional factors of imminent issues have generated a debate to appear past the out-of-date coast-to-coast security constraints and comprise the environmentalist model of security, which calls for developing the variation ability of a state.

Industrial Waste Management in Pakistan: Problems and Prospects

The disposal of industrial waste is a serious issue in almost every developed and underdeveloped nation. Fast-growing industrialization and urbanization have severly affected the environment and water quality. The developed states have developed techniques to dispose of industrial waste. However, as it is very expensive, so underdeveloped states are lacking behind in the technology of industrial waste disposal. This paper will explore different aspects of Industrial waste, such as the causes of industrial waste and its effects on the population. This research is supported by the survey from the around 300 people of Multan to know about the perception of the general public about industrial waste management. The paper concludes with the recommendations that government, industrialists and civil society can jointly resolve the issue of industrial waste by taking different measures on their part.