Under-ice Seawater Research Articles

First report on biological iron uptake in the Antarctic sea-ice environment

Melting sea ice is a seasonal source of iron (Fe) to the Southern Ocean (SO), where Fe levels in surface waters are otherwise generally too low to support phytoplankton growth. However, the effectiveness of sea-ice Fe fertilization in stimulating SO primary production is unknown since no data exist on Fe uptake by microorganisms in the sea-ice environment. This study reports a unique dataset on Fe uptake rates, Fe-to-carbon (C) uptake ratio (Fe uptake normalized to C uptake) and Fe:C uptake rate (Fe uptake normalized to biomass) by in situ microbial communities inhabiting sea ice and the underlying seawater. Radioisotopes 55Fe and 14C were used in short-term uptake experiments during the 32-day Ice Station POLarstern (ISPOL) time series to evaluate the contributions of small (0.8–10 µm) and large (> 10 µm) microbes to Fe uptake. Overall, results show that over 90% of Fe was bound to the outside of the cells. Intracellular Fe (Feintra) uptake rates reached up to 68, 194, and 203 pmol Fe L−1d− 1 in under-ice seawater, bottom ice, and top ice, respectively. Inorganic carbon uptake ranged between 0.03 and 3.2 µmol C L−1 d−1, with the lowest rate observed in under-ice seawater. Importantly, between the start and end of ISPOL, we observed a 30-fold increase in Feintra normalized to carbon biomass in bottom sea ice. This trend was likely due to changes in the microbial community from a dominance of large diatoms at the start of the survey to small diatoms later in the season. As the Antarctic icescape and associated ecosystems are changing, this dataset will help inform the parameterisation of sea-ice biogeochemical and ecological models in ice-covered regions.

Wintertime Simulations Induce Changes in the Structure, Diversity and Function of Antarctic Sea Ice-Associated Microbial Communities

Antarctic sea-ice is exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions during its annual existence; however, there is very little information describing the change in sea-ice-associated microbial communities (SIMCOs) during the changing seasons. It is well known that during the solar seasons, SIMCOs play an important role in the polar carbon-cycle, by increasing the total photosynthetic primary production of the South Ocean and participating in the remineralization of phosphates and nitrogen. What remains poorly understood is the dynamic of SIMCO populations and their ecological contribution to carbon and nutrient cycling throughout the entire annual life of Antarctic sea-ice, especially in winter. Sea ice at this time of the year is an extreme environment, characterized by complete darkness (which stops photosynthesis), extremely low temperatures in its upper horizons (down to −45 °C) and high salinity (up to 150–250 psu) in its brine inclusions, where SIMCOs thrive. Without a permanent station, wintering expeditions in Antarctica are technically difficult; therefore, in this study, the process of autumn freezing was modelled under laboratory conditions, and the resulting ‘young ice’ was further incubated in cold and darkness for one month. The ice formation experiment was primarily designed to reproduce two critical conditions: (i) total darkness, causing the photosynthesis to cease, and (ii) the presence of a large amount of algae-derived organic matter. As expected, in the absence of photosynthesis, the activity of aerobic heterotrophs quickly created micro-oxic conditions, which caused the emergence of new players, namely facultative anaerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Following this finding, we can state that Antarctic pack-ice and its surrounding ambient (under-ice seawater and platelet ice) are likely to be very dynamic and can quickly respond to environmental changes caused by the seasonal fluctuations. Given the size of Antarctic pack-ice, even in complete darkness and cessation of photosynthesis, its ecosystem appears to remain active, continuing to participate in global carbon-and-sulfur cycling under harsh conditions.

High Concentrations of Perfluoroalkyl Acids in Arctic Seawater Driven by Early Thawing Sea Ice.

Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances are synthetic chemicals that are widely present in the global environment including the Arctic. However, little is known about how these chemicals (particularly perfluoroalkyl acids, PFAA) enter the Arctic marine system and cycle between seawater and sea ice compartments. To evaluate this, we analyzed sea ice, snow, melt ponds, and near-surface seawater at two ice-covered stations located north of the Barents Sea (81 °N) with the aim of investigating PFAA dynamics in the late-season ice pack. Sea ice showed high concentrations of PFAA particularly at the surface with snow-ice (the uppermost sea ice layer strongly influenced by snow) comprising 26–62% of the total PFAA burden. Low salinities (<2.5 ppt) and low δ18OH20 values (<1‰ in snow and upper ice layers) in sea ice revealed the strong influence of meteoric water on sea ice, thus indicating a significant atmospheric source of PFAA with subsequent transfer down the sea ice column in meltwater. Importantly, the under-ice seawater (0.5 m depth) displayed some of the highest concentrations notably for the long-chain PFAA (e.g., PFOA 928 ± 617 pg L–1), which were ≈3-fold higher than those of deeper water (5 m depth) and ≈2-fold higher than those recently measured in surface waters of the North Sea infuenced by industrial inputs of PFAAs. The evidence provided here suggests that meltwater arising early in the melt season from snow and other surface ice floe components drives the higher PFAA concentrations observed in under-ice seawater, which could in turn influence the timing and extent of PFAA exposure for organisms at the base of the marine food web.

Differences in diversity and photoprotection capability between ice algae and under-ice phytoplankton in Saroma-Ko Lagoon, Japan: a comparative taxonomic diatom analysis with microscopy and DNA barcoding

Sea ice algae, comprised mainly of diatoms, are the main primary producers in polar ecosystems, and they are generally distributed with the highest biomass at the bottom of ice. The taxonomy of ice algae has been traditionally investigated using light microscopy, but molecular techniques, including pigment analysis, have recently provided new insights into the diversity and physiology of ice algae. However, no comparative taxonomic survey has been conducted for ice algae thus far. Here, we investigated differences and similarities in (1) the diversity and (2) the photosynthetic strategies of diatom communities in sea ice and the underlying seawater of Saroma-Ko Lagoon, Hokkaido, Japan, using algal pigment signatures determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography, light and scanning electron microscopy and Ion Torrent next-generation sequencing techniques targeting the 18S rRNA gene (i.e., DNA barcoding). Ice algae typically possessed greater biomass (> 20-fold) and chlorophyll (Chl) a breakdown products than under-ice phytoplankton, suggesting that the ice algae formed blooms, and cell senescence and disruption could be significant mitigating factors. At the genus level, the diversity of diatoms in sea ice was higher than in under-ice seawater, although the evenness was comparable or lower in ice algae than in under-ice phytoplankton. Ice algae had a larger xanthophyll pool size and a higher ratio of photoprotective to photosynthetic pigments (11-fold and 4.5-fold higher, respectively) than under-ice phytoplankton. The results indicated that ice algae were well adapted to changes in the light regime, which could partly support their survival capability and high taxonomic diversity.

Measuring pH in the Arctic Ocean: Colorimetric method or SeaFET?

The suitability of the colorimetric method in a custom-made instrumental set-up and the commercial potentiometric SeaFET®electrode sensor to measure pH in surface oceanic water in the Arctic was investigated during the Chinese Arctic Research Expedition (CHINARE) in summer 2014. The instruments were set up in parallel on the on-board underway seawater supply for 65 days, enabling comparison in various conditions in the Arctic Ocean from the Chukchi Sea to the ice-covered high latitudes (81°N) and the open-water North-western Pacific Ocean. Overall, the instruments yielded pH datasets of similar high quality (method uncertainty ≤0.010). Detailed comparison with the parallel colorimetric pH measurements indicated that the measurements with the SeaFET external electrode in the low salinity ice-covered area were problematical and that the internal reference electrode failed after almost 2 months of cruise. Reasons for discrepancies between the data from the two instruments and recommendations for the use of either instrument for pH measurements in the Arctic are discussed. Finally, the investigation yielded a reliable high-resolution pH dataset in surface waters along a transect from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean. Large pH variations were observed in the ice-free Arctic surface waters, with pH ranging between 7.98 and 8.49. The highest pH values were observed at the ice edge, whereas a relatively invariable pH (8.02±0.02) was measured in under-ice seawater in the ice-covered Arctic Ocean. The high resolution surface seawater pH dataset obtained here could be used as reference to detect the on-going acidification rate in the Pacific Arctic.

DMSP and DMS cycling within Antarctic sea ice during the winter–spring transition

This study describes within-ice concentrations of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP), its degradation product dimethylsulphide (DMS), as well as nutrients and chlorophyll a, that were sampled during the Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystems eXperiment-2 (SIPEX-2) in 2012. DMSP is a methylated substrate produced in large amounts annually by ice-associated microalgae, while DMS plays a significant role in carbon and sulphur cycling in the Southern Ocean. In the East Antarctic study area between 115–125°E and 64–66°S, ice and slush cores, brine, under-ice seawater and zooplankton (Antarctic krill) samples were collected at 6 ice stations. The pack-ice was characterised by high snow loading which initiated flooding events and triggered nutrient supply to the sea-ice surface, while variation in ice conditions influenced sea-ice permeability. This ranged from impermeable surface and middle sections of the sea ice, to completely permeable ice cores at some stations. Chlorophyll a maxima shifted from the sea-ice surface horizon at the first station to the sea ice bottom layer at the last station. Highest DMSP concentrations were detected in brine samples at the sea-ice surface, reflecting a mismatch with respect to the distribution of chlorophyll a. Our data suggest enhanced DMSP production by sea-ice surface algal communities and its release into brine during freezing and melting, which in turn is coupled to flooding events early in the season. A time-cycle of DMS production by DMSP degradation and DMS efflux is evident at the sea ice-snow interface when slush is formed during melt. Seawater under the ice contained only low concentrations of DMSP and DMS, even when brine drainage was evident and the sea ice became permeable. We postulate that in situ grazing by zooplankton may act as sink for the DMSP produced early in the season.

Organic ligands control the concentrations of dissolved iron in Antarctic sea ice

The organic complexation of dissolved iron (DFe) was assessed in 5 snow, 34 sea ice, 12 brine and 24 under-ice seawater samples collected during a 22day time series in the East Antarctic sector in austral summer 2009. Similar to seawater, over 99% of DFe was bound to organic ligands in snow, sea ice and brines throughout the study. Dissolved organic ligand and Fe concentrations were higher in the brines and sea ice than in snow and seawater samples. In sea ice, [DFe] ranged from 2.1 to 81.0nM and organic Fe complexing ligands ([Lt]) ranged from 4.5 to 72.1nM, with complex stability log KFeL=21.0–23.0. Estimated concentrations of inorganic Fe ([Fe′]) in sea ice ranged from 0.1 to 98.2pM. In brines, [DFe] ranged from 0.3 to 34.6nM and [Lt] ranged from 5.9 to 41.4nM, with complex stability log KFeL=21.0–22.0. Estimated concentrations of inorganic Fe (Fe′) in brines ranged from 0.70 to 7.2pM. Organic ligands were nearly saturated with Fe in both sea ice and brines, with positive linear relationships observed between [DFe] and [Lt]: [Lt]=0.90 [DFe]+4.24 (R2=0.93, n=34) in sea ice and [Lt]=1.08[DFe]+4.86 (R2=0.98, n=12) in brines. Our results therefore suggest that the organic ligands produced by sea ice algae and bacteria keep Fe in the dissolved phase therefore enhancing its availability for the sea ice algal community. When DFe concentrations become higher than the ligand concentrations, non-organically bound Fe is transferred into the particulate phase by scavenging, biological uptake or precipitation processes. As sea ice starts to melt, DFe is released into seawater together with organic ligands, potentially increasing the residence time of Fe in Antarctic surface waters and its bio-availability for the phytoplankton community.

Physical controls on the storage of methane in landfast sea ice

Abstract. We report on methane (CH4) dynamics in landfast sea ice, brine and under-ice seawater at Barrow in 2009. The CH4 concentrations in under-ice water ranged from 25.9 to 116.4 nmol L−1sw, indicating a supersaturation of 700 to 3100% relative to the atmosphere. In comparison, the CH4 concentrations in sea ice ranged from 3.4 to 17.2 nmol L−1ice and the deduced CH4 concentrations in brine from 13.2 to 677.7 nmol L−1brine. We investigated the processes underlying the difference in CH4 concentrations between sea ice, brine and under-ice water and suggest that biological controls on the storage of CH4 in ice were minor in comparison to the physical controls. Two physical processes regulated the storage of CH4 in our landfast ice samples: bubble formation within the ice and sea ice permeability. Gas bubble formation due to brine concentration and solubility decrease favoured the accumulation of CH4 in the ice at the beginning of ice growth. CH4 retention in sea ice was then twice as efficient as that of salt; this also explains the overall higher CH4 concentrations in brine than in the under-ice water. As sea ice thickened, gas bubble formation became less efficient, CH4 was then mainly trapped in the dissolved state. The increase of sea ice permeability during ice melt marked the end of CH4 storage.

Iron in land-fast sea ice of McMurdo Sound derived from sediment resuspension and wind-blown dust attributes to primary productivity in the Ross Sea, Antarctica

We present high-accuracy isotope dilution mass spectrometry data on dissolved Fe (DFe), total dissolvable Fe (TD-Fe) and refractory particulate Fe (REF-Fe) concentrations in snow, land-fast ice and under-ice seawater, sampled at six sites from 14 to 22 January 2003 in Erebus Bay, McMurdo Sound. We also report refractory particulate Fe/Al ratios to help identify Fe sources. Iron concentrations in land-fast ice and snow were two to three orders of magnitude higher than the underlying seawater. Seawater Fe increased in all fractions over the sampling period (8days), likely caused by sediment resuspension induced by spring tides, which occur twice a month. We propose that entrainment of wind-blown material and sediment-derived Fe is the most important pathway for high Fe concentrations in land-fast ice in McMurdo Sound. Iron fluxes from the sediment were estimated and could fully account for the Fe inventory of the land-fast ice. Wind-blown lithogenic material in the snow on the land-fast ice makes up for 14–68% of the total Fe inventory of the sea ice. It does not appear to penetrate into the sea ice proper as snow-ice forming conditions were not present. The sources of these wind-blown particles are, in decreasing order of strength, the McMurdo Ice Shelf, the Dry Valleys, Ross Island and Erebus volcanic emissions. The data suggest that the usual spring breakup of sediment-laden land-fast ice to the Ross Sea may have a significant potential fertilizing effect on the waters of the Ross Sea Polynya. This is illustrated by the strong diminution of primary production in the Ross Sea Polynya due to the blockade of the annual sea ice breakout by the giant icebergs B-15 and C-19 during the austral summer of 2003.

Abundant dissolved genetic material in Arctic sea ice Part II: Viral dynamics during autumn freeze-up

Viruses play a significant role in nutrient cycling within the world’s oceans and are important agents of horizontal gene transfer, but little is know about their entrainment into sea ice or their temporal dynamics once entrained. Nilas, grease ice, pancake ice, first-year sea ice floes up to 78 cm in thickness, and under-ice seawater were sampled widely across Amundsen Gulf (ca. \(71^\circ \hbox{N}, 125^\circ \hbox{W}\)) for concentrations of viruses and bacteria. Here, we report exceptionally high virus-to-bacteria ratios in seawater (45–340) and sea ice (93–2,820) during the autumn freeze-up. Virus concentrations ranged from 4.8 to 27 × 106 ml−1 in seawater and, scaled to brine volume, 5.5 to 170 × 107 ml−1 in sea ice. Large enrichment indices indicated processes of active entrainment from source seawater, or viral production within the ice, which was observed in 2 of 3 bottle incubations of sea ice brine at a temperature (\(-7^\circ\hbox{C}\)) and salinity (\(110 \permille\)) approximating that in situ. Median predicted virus-to-bacteria contact rates (relative to underlying seawater) were greatest in the top of thick sea ice (66–78 cm: 130×) and lowest in the bottom of medium-thickness ice (33–37 cm: 23×). The great abundance of viruses and more frequent interactions between bacteria and viruses predicted in sea ice relative to underlying seawater suggest that sea ice may be a hot spot for virally mediated horizontal gene transfer in the polar marine environment.

Springtime CO2 exchange over seasonal sea ice in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago

AbstractSpringtime measurements of CO2 exchange over seasonal sea ice in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago using eddy covariance show that CO2 was generally released to the atmosphere during the cold (ice surface temperatures less than about –6˚C) early part of the season, but was absorbed from the atmosphere as warming advanced. Hourly maximum efflux and uptake rates approached 1.0 and –3.0 μmol m–2 s–1, respectively. These CO2 flux rates are far greater than previously reported over sea ice and are comparable in magnitude to exchanges observed within other systems (terrestrial and marine). Uptake generally occurred for wind speeds in excess of 6 m s–1 and corresponded to local maxima in temperature at the snow–ice interface and net radiation. Efflux, on the other hand, occurred under weaker wind speeds and periods of local minima in temperature and net radiation. the wind speeds associated with uptake are above a critical threshold for drifting and blowing snow, suggesting that ventilation of the snowpack and turbulent exchange with the brine-wetted grains are an important part of the process. Both the uptake and release fluxes may be at least partially driven by the temperature sensitivity of the carbonate system speciation in the brine-wetted snow base and upper sea ice. the period of maximum springtime CO2 uptake occurred as the sea-ice permeability increased, passing a critical threshold allowing vertical brine movement throughout the sea-ice sheet. At this point, atmospheric CO2 would have been available to the under-ice sea-water carbonate system, with ramifications for carbon cycling in sea-ice-dominated polar waters.

α- and γ-Hexachlorocyclohexane Measurements in the Brine Fraction of Sea Ice in the Canadian High Arctic Using a Sump-Hole Technique

We used holes augered partially into first-year sea ice (sumps) to determine α- and γ-HCH concentrations in sea-ice brine. The overwintering of the CCGS Amundsen in the Canadian western Arctic, as part of the Circumpolar Flaw Lead (CFL) System Study, provided the circumstances to allow brine to accumulate in sumps sufficiently to test the methodology. We show, for the first time, that as much as 50% of total HCHs in seawater can become entrapped within the ice crystal matrix. On average, in the winter first-year sea ice HCH brine concentrations reached 4.013 ± 0.307 ng/L and 0.423 ± 0.013 ng/L for the α- and γ-isomer, respectively. In the spring, HCHs decreased gradually with time, with increasing brine volume fraction and decreasing brine salinity. These decreasing concentrations could be accounted for by both the dilution with the ice crystal matrix and under-ice seawater. We propose that the former process plays a more significant role considering brine volume fractions calculated in this study were below 20%. Levels of HCHs in the brine exceed under-ice water concentrations by approximately a factor of 3, a circumstance suggesting that the brine ecosystem has been, and continues to be, the most exposed to HCHs.

Persistence of bacterial and archaeal communities in sea ice through an Arctic winter

The structure of bacterial communities in first-year spring and summer sea ice differs from that in source seawaters, suggesting selection during ice formation in autumn or taxon-specific mortality in the ice during winter. We tested these hypotheses by weekly sampling (January–March 2004) of first-year winter sea ice (Franklin Bay, Western Arctic) that experienced temperatures from −9°C to −26°C, generating community fingerprints and clone libraries for Bacteria and Archaea. Despite severe conditions and significant decreases in microbial abundance, no significant changes in richness or community structure were detected in the ice. Communities of Bacteria and Archaea in the ice, as in under-ice seawater, were dominated by SAR11 clade Alphaproteobacteria and Marine Group I Crenarchaeota, neither of which is known from later season sea ice. The bacterial ice library contained clones of Gammaproteobacteria from oligotrophic seawater clades (e.g. OM60, OM182) but no clones from gammaproteobacterial genera commonly detected in later season sea ice by similar methods (e.g. Colwellia, Psychrobacter). The only common sea ice bacterial genus detected in winter ice was Polaribacter. Overall, selection during ice formation and mortality during winter appear to play minor roles in the process of microbial succession that leads to distinctive spring and summer sea ice communities.

Short-term under-ice variability of prokaryotic plankton communities in coastal Antarctic waters (Cape Hallett, Ross Sea)

During the 2006 Italian Antarctic expedition a diel sampling was performed close to Cape Hallett (Ross Sea) during the Austral summer. Under-ice seawater samples (∼4 m) were collected every 2 h for 28 h in order to estimate prokaryotic processes' variability and community structure dynamics. Prokaryotic and viral abundances, exoenzymatic activities (β-glucosidase, chitinase, lipase, alkaline phosphatase and leucine aminopeptidase), prokaryotic carbon production ( 3 H-leucine incorporation) and community structure (Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis – DGGE fingerprints) were analysed. Results showed that the diel variability of the prokaryotic activity followed a variation in salinity, probably as a consequence of the periodical thawing of sea ice (driven by solar radiation and air temperature cycles), while negligible variation in viral and prokaryotic abundances occurred. The Bacterial and Archaeal community structures underwent an Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) temporal shift from the beginning to the end of the sampling, while Flavobacteria-specific primers highlighted high variations in this group possibly related to sea ice melting and substrate release.

Land-fast ice off Adélie Land (Antarctica): short-term variations in nutrients and chlorophyll just before ice break-up

This study focused on the short-term variations of sea ice microalgal biomass and nutrients, in Adélie Land coastal area (Antarctica). The annual land-fast ice, “platelet ice-like” layer (PLI) and under-lying seawater were sampled during the 1999 austral spring. The study was conducted during 33 days preceding the ice break-up, with a daily sampling when the meteorological conditions were favourable. Time-series for salinity, chlorophyll a (Chl a), NH 4 +, NO 2 −, NO 3 −, PO 4 − and Si(OH) 4 are shown. We also provide satellite data and meteorological variables for the same period. During the study period, the solid ice thickness varied from 1.47 to 1.05 m. Pigments were concentrated in bottom ice, but progressively invaded the PLI. Phaeo a increased in the PLI during the last weeks, in parallel with increasing NO 2 − concentration. Si(OH) 4, in lowest concentrations in bottom ice, increased progressively in the under-ice water (UIW) and PLI, this was because of offshore water inputs. NH 4 + concentrations were high in every sea ice component (particularly in the bottom ice) and were inversely correlated to pigments in the bottom ice. NH 4 + concentrations progressively increased in the PLI and underlying seawater just before the break-up. In the bottom ice, PO 4 − concentrations were related to high pigment concentrations, but with a short lag close to the break up period, indicating in situ regeneration. Neither NO 3 − nor NH 4 + concentrations were exhausted in the bottom ice. NO 2 − and NH 4 + concentrations increased in PLI and under-ice water just before the break-up period, which might indicate strong inorganic nitrogen recycling in land-fast ice. Approximately 0.4 kmol km −1 linear coast of NH 4 + (1 kmol NO 3 − and 2 kmol PO 4 −) were released to the under-ice seawater during break-up, along with 0.12 tons km −1 Chl a (9.6 tons POC km −1 equivalent). These nutrient sea ice inputs to the coastal zone waters, during the ice recession and break-up, may vary annually depending upon the local meteorological conditions that control ice formation, duration of ice cover and melting.

Experimental evidence for carbonate precipitation and CO 2 degassing during sea ice formation

Chemical and stable carbon isotopic modifications during the freezing of artificial seawater were measured in four 4 m 3 tank incubations. Three of the four incubations were inoculated with a nonaxenic Antarctic diatom culture. The 18 days of freezing resulted in 25 to 27 cm thick ice sheets overlying the residual seawater. The ice phase was characterized by a decrease in temperature from −1.9 to −2.2°C in the under-ice seawater down to −6.7°C in the upper 4 cm of the ice sheet, with a concurrent increase in the salinity of the under-ice seawater and brine inclusions of the ice sheet as a result of physical concentration of major dissolved salts by expulsion from the solid ice matrix. Measurements of pH, total dissolved inorganic carbon (C T) and its stable isotopic composition (δ 13C T) all exhibited changes, which suggest minimal effect by biological activity during the experiment. A systematic drop in pH and salinity-normalized C T by up to 0.37 pH SWS units and 376 μmol C kg −1 respectively at the lowest temperature and highest salinity part of the ice sheet were coupled with an equally systematic 13C enrichment of the C T. Calculations based on the direct pH and C T measurements indicated a steady increase in the in situ concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2(aq)) with time and increasing salinity within the ice sheet, partly due to changes in the dissociation constants of carbonic acid in the low temperature-high salinity range within sea ice. The combined effects of temperature and salinity on the solubility of CO 2 over the range of conditions encountered during this study was a slight net decrease in the equilibrium CO 2(aq) concentration as a result of the salting-out overriding the increase in solubility with decreasing temperature. Hence, the increase in the in situ CO 2(aq) concentration lead to saturation or supersaturation of the brine inclusions in the ice sheet with respect to atmospheric pCO 2 (≈3.5 × 10 −4 atm). When all physico-chemical processes are considered, we expect CO 2 degassing and carbonate mineral precipitation from the brine inclusions of the ice sheet, which were saturated or highly supersaturated with respect to both the anhydrous (calcite, aragonite, vaterite) and hydrated (ikaite) carbonate minerals.

Distribution of Enteric Bacteria in Antarctic Seawater Surrounding the Dumont d’Urville Permanent Station (Adélie Land)

The survival of human enteric bacteria in the aquatic environment has attracted much interest in view of its public health significance. Untreated sewage has been released from Dumont d'Urville station, Antarctica, into the Southern Ocean for several years. The spatial distribution of faecal bacteria indicators was investigated in summer ice-free seawater near the French Base station of the Adélie land area. A complementary seasonal survey of the occurrence of faecal coliform bacteria was conducted in seawater under the winter sea ice in a specific station. Relatively high bacterial densities (maximum 10 3 CFU 100 ml −1) were found in seawater surrounding the sewage outfall. However, the contamination decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the outfall. In all samples collected further than 2 km, the bacterial indicators were absent or present in very small numbers. Faecal coliforms were not detected in samples collected at pristine sites. Despite these relatively low contamination levels, faecal bacteria were always detected in the vicinity of the sewage outfall during the seasonal survey conducted in ice and under-ice seawater.

Diversity and association of psychrophilic bacteria in Antarctic sea ice.

The bacterial populations associated with sea ice sampled from Antarctic coastal areas were investigated by use of a phenotypic approach and a phylogenetic approach based on genes encoding 16S rRNA (16S rDNA). The diversity of bacteria associated with sea ice was also compared with the bacterial diversity of seawater underlying sea ice. Psychrophilic (optimal growth temperature, < or = 15 degrees C; no growth occurring at 20 degrees C) bacterial diversity was found to be significantly enriched in sea ice samples possessing platelet and bottom ice diatom assemblages, with 2 to 9 distinct (average, 5.6 +/- 1.8) psychrophilic taxa isolated per sample. Substantially fewer psychrophilic isolates were recovered from ice cores with a low or negligible population of ice diatoms or from under-ice seawater samples (less than one distinct taxon isolated per sample). In addition, psychrophilic taxa that were isolated from under-ice seawater samples were in general phylogenetically distinct from psychrophilic taxa isolated from sea ice cores. The taxonomic distributions of psychrotrophic bacterial isolates (optimal growth temperature, > 20 degrees C; growth can occur at approximately 4 degrees C) isolated from sea ice cores and under-ice seawater were quite similar. Overall, bacterial isolates from Antarctic sea ice were found to belong to four phylogenetic groups, the alpha and gamma subdivisions of the Proteobacteria, the gram-positive branch, and the Flexibacter-Bacteroides-Cytophaga phylum. Most of the sea ice strains examined appeared to be novel taxa based on phylogenetic comparisons, with 45% of the strains being psychrophilic. 16S rDNA sequence analysis revealed that psychrophilic strains belonged to the genera Colwellia, Shewanella, Marinobacter, Planococcus, and novel phylogenetic lineages adjacent to Colwellia and Alteromonas and within the Flexibacter-Bacteroides-Cytophaga phylum. Psychrotrophic strains were found to be members of the genera Pseudoalteromonas, Psychrobacter, Halomonas, Pseudomonas, Hyphomonas, Sphingomonas, Arthrobacter, Planococcus, and Halobacillus. From this survey, it is proposed that ice diatom assemblages provide niches conducive to the proliferation of a diverse array of psychrophilic bacterial species.

Effect of dispersed oil on heterotrophic bacterial communities in cold marine waters

Mesocosm studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of dispersed oil on total and heterotrophic bacterial communities of under-ice seawater from the St. Lawrence Estuary. A regular survey of bacterial changes in the oil-contaminated seawater was performed during a two week period. The bacterial community structure was investigated by carrying out 27 morphological and biochemical tests on 168 isolated strains. The results show a detectable but transient response of the bacterial community to crude oil addition. While total bacterial counts were approximately constant during the experiment, dispersed oil induced an increase in heterotrophic bacterial microflora (from 10(4) to 10(5) bacteria ml(-1) after two weeks of contamination). The dispersed oil appeared to have an inhibitory effect on some components of the bacterial community. A decrease of most probable number values was observed just after addition of crude oil in the most polluted tanks and one day later in the less polluted tank. However, except for the most polluted tank, this adverse effect disappeared rapidly. While the dispersed oil induced a total disappearance of some components of the bacterial community in the most polluted tank, the structure of the bacterial community in the less polluted tank appeared relatively unchanged after 14 days of contamination.